Field work Traditions in Anthropology
- Fieldwork theories are defined by “notes and queries” in anthropology. It is the first hand information of people through the techniques of personal observation, interviews and interactions that include prolonged stay among the people who are being studied.
- The field work is of 2 varieties…they are Participant observation and
- Non participant observation
Genesis of Fieldwork
- Fieldwork requires first hand observation, recording or documenting, what one sees and observes.
- Data generated depends upon fieldworker himself, his psyche, his level of involvement
- and ability to see and visualize things.
- In participant , he goes to the field and stays with the people whom he want to study. Whereas in non participant observation, he visits the field but observes externally follows the books written on them. But currently the concept of field work emphasizes on direct involvement of the observer with his subjects.
- Franz boas, emphasized detailed data collection during his visit to baffin island and he promoted the culture should be studied historically but not comparatively (historical particularism) by which we can produce inclusive theories which are not ethno-centric in nature.
- W.H.R. rivers is also part of Torris-strait expedition of oceania region . Rivers also visited India, and studied Toda tribal community of Tamil nadu. He is creDited for introducing Genelogies in Data Collection.
- R.C. brown , is also part of Torris-strait expedition. He came to India to conduct field work among the tribes of Andaman islands. He had taken up non participant observation to study Andaman islanders.
- Malinowski is the person who introduced participant observation in anthropology. He was famous for conducting field work in native language. His main focus was understanding the social change of trobriand islanders, malinesian tribes and polynesian tribes. He emphasized the role of informers in providing field work and field data. He was instrumental in bringing out the rules for the researchers
- Edmund leach, studied burmese societies (kachin and shan) for understanding the change in political system
- Raymond firth, studied economic systems among the maoris of New zealand. Raymond Firth was later responsible for initiating discussions on ethnicity in anthropology.
- Ruth benedict, studied pima, pueblozoni, kwakitul, dobu and also japanese culture and national character studies.
- Abram Kardiner on Marquesians of Polynesia.
- Cora-du-bois, did field work at alore, and Indonesian village. She included ethnographic facts, collected biographics, dreams of children by which she concluded, culture and personality influences each other.
Conclusion
- Thus the Fieldwork tradition in anthropology was theoritically started by Classical evolutionists and systematically developed by Diffusionists and Reached practicality by Functionalism and Culture personality school.The classical model of Fieldwork is called Participant model of Field work.
- Fieldwork tradition made study of anthropology more holistic and authentic.
8(b) Distinction between Technique, Method and Methodology
- Research basically means search for knowledge, which is scientific and systematic search for ingenious information or data on specific topic.
- Research Technique : It refers to the behavior(skill) and instruments we use in performing research operations such as making observations, recording data, processing of data.
- Research Methods : It refers to the Model which we adopt in collecting the data.
- Like Particpant model or Non Participant model.
Research Methodology :
- It is the reasoning behind choosing of a technique in a method in order to solve the research problem systematically. It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically.
- When we talk about reseach methodology, we consider about the logic behind the methods in the context of our research study
8(C) Tools of Data Collection
- Tools of data collection are different methods and instruments which are used in performing research operations such as making collecting data by observations, recording data, techniques of processing data etc.
- Different Tools of Data Collection are Observation
- Interview
- Questionnaire and
- schedule
- Case study
- Genealogical method
- Life History
- Oral History
- Participatory appraisal
- Secondary sources
1. Observation
- It is about noticing an individual or a group or a social system in order to make desired data.
- Observation is a scientific technique used in anthropology for data collection. The most important observation is participant observation. It was pioneered by Franz Boas but developed by Malinowski.
Observations are of 4 types
- Controlled observation.
- Uncontrolled observation.
- 3Non-participant observation.
- Participant observation.
The most important obervation is Participant observation.
- Controlled observation is that were observant know, he is under observation, hence his behaviour will be intentional and desirable.
- Uncontrolled observation: Here the observant is not aware that he/she is not under observation, hence real behaviour will be collected down.
- Participant observation: Participant observation as performed by Malinowski is trying to come to as appreciation of our subject’s way of life by immersing ourselves in it, participating in many of its day to day aspects at the same.
Merit of Participant observation
- Researcher participates in the group under observation, he has an access to a body of information, giving him great depth of experience which could not easily be obtained in other methods.
- Members of community are unaware of the researcher’s purpose. Their behavior is least likely to be affected. Thus the researcher can record the natural behavior of the group.
De-Merit of Participant observation;
- Emotional involvement of observer might lead to biased observations.
- Time Consuming
6. Genealogical methods
- It refers to pedigree or a systematic narration or description of a family tree showing all the ramifications of kinship linkages, kinship terms, various kinship usages and succession etc according to the principles of Culture.
- Genealogy method of data collection was invented by W.H.R.Rivers during his Torres Strait expedition.
Functional value
- Used in regulation of marriage, inheritance of property, succession to chieftainship, etc.
- This is helpful for sociological work and also investigations on population and migration.
- On the occassion of ceremonies connected with birth, marriage and death, Vital statistics, to know demographic , pedigree analysis to detect genetic disorders.
Methodology
- Information is gathered through ego.
- Ego is a person of family chosen by the researcher as the main source of information through which all kinship relations are and family tree is built
- Caution to be taken
- Informant should not feel that their information can be used against them.
- Good rapport with informant
- Information collected should be interpreted in local context.
- Phrasing of the question should be context.
Conclusion: Despite some limitations, genealogical method has improved anthropological data collection.
7. Life history
One of the important source of data collection is study of auto biographies or even an interpretation from the events of an individual is called as life history. The source of life history are diaries, letters, photographs, folklore etc.
8. Oral history
- It can be defined as the recording, preservation and interpretation of historical information based on the personal experiences and opinion of the speaker.
- In small and isolated non-literate groups the framework of cultures rest almost wholly on the oral traditions. Knowledge both secular and sacred is transmitted from generation to generation by word of mouth.
Often takes the form of eyewitness, evidence about past events and also include myths and songs. Examples of Oral history:
- Folklores
- Mythology
9. Secondary source of information
- Secondary data means that are already available i.e. they refer to the data, which have already been collected and analysed by someone else. When the researcher utilises secondary data, then he has to look into various sources from where he can obtain them.
- Types of secondary data : Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data like books, journals, govt. publications, technical and trade journals, magazines, newspapers and research books. Where as unpublished data are diaries, letters, unpublished biographic’s etc,
Features of secondary sources:
Though secondary sources are diverse and consists of all sorts of materials, they have certain common characteristics as given below.
- They are readymade and readily available.
- They do not require the trouble of construction tools and administering them.
- They consist of data over which a researcher has no original control over collection and classification. Both the form and the content of secondary sources are shaped by others.
- Secondary sources are not limited in time and space. That is, the researcher using them need not have been present when and where they were gathered.
10. Participatory methods
- This is a method of data collection in an inclusive way. Here the people are participated in data collection methods. It is of 2 types
- PRA (participating rural apparisal)
- RRA (rapid rural appraisal).
- PRA and RRA are the modern methods of data collection.
- In PRA the data is collected by all the people inclusively and it is extrapolited to draw a conclusion. This conclusion gives us the data. Where as RRA, the observer reaches each and every individual in the community and he draws the data from individuals, collects the data from all the individuals and produce the collection as data.
Principle common to both PRA and RRA:
- Reversal of learning: It means to learn from the local people directly on the site.
- Learning rapidly and progressively with conscious exploration, flexible use of methods, improvisation and cross-checking. Rather than following a blueprint programme, it focuses on being adaptable in the learning process.
- Offsetting biases by being relaxed and not rushing, listening and not lecturing, probing instead of passing on to the next topic and learning the people’s concerns and priorities.
- Triangulating: It means cross-checking, progressive learning and approximation through plural investigation.
Principles exclusive to PRA:
- People themselves are participants: Facilitating investigation, analysis, presentation and learning by local people themselves, so that they generate as well as own the outcomes, and also learn.
- Self-critical awareness: The researchers continuously and critically examine their own behaviour, including embracing their own errors.
- Personal Responsibility: PRA practitioners tend to take personal responsibility for what is done rather than relying on manuals or a rigid set of rules.
Techniques of PRA:
- Participatory mapping and modelling in which villagers prepare maps of their village.
- Participatory transact walk includes systematically walking with the villagers through the area of village and discussing about the aspects of village life observed during the walk.
- Technique of timeline includes a historical account given by the villagers of how differet aspects of village life has changed.
- Participatory diagramming: The villagers prepare diagrams of various social, economic and physical phenomena such as wages received, food consumed, crops grown, etc.
Analysis, interpretation and presentation of data
Data analysis: A social analyst assumes that behind his accumulated data there is something more important and revealing than the facts and figures themselves. He further assumes that social analysis is a continous process through out the entire research undertaking.
There are two methods of analysis
- Descriptive analysis
- Inferential analysis
- Descriptive analysis deals about single aspect or more than two aspects and the relationship between them. It is about to understand the socio-cultural setup of the fact.
- Inferential analysis deals about giving conclusions based on the inferences present in the data. It is multi dimensional in nature .
- During Data Analysis investigator searches for pattern of data and when such patterns are identified they interpret that data moving from description of empirical data to interpretation of meaning.
Data interpretation and presentation of data
- Research report is considered as a major component of research study. The presentation of data is most important because it gives us a clear idea and understanding of the facts. The presentation of data includes
- Preparation of final outline.
- Logical analysis of the subject matter.
- Preparation of rough draft and final draft.
- Evaluating, rewriting and polishing.
- Data can be presented in various forms like
- Book writing
- In statistical way
- Tabular form
- Bar diagrams and pie charts etc.
Conclusion
In anthropology, data collection methods, field works, data analysis, interpretation and presentation of data plays a major role because it is the source which gives the information to the world about human cultures, their growth and development.
If any distortion in data collection leads to wrong analysis and false interpretations which will be detrimental to the socio-cultural studies of man.
Q) Data analysis, interpretation and presentation, is this a sacred phenomenon? How data analysis influences the society?
