INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS

Introduction:

The United Nations (UN) is an international organization founded in 1945. It is currently made up of 193 Member States. Its mission and work guided by the purposes and principles contained in its founding Charter and implemented by its various organs and specialised agencies.
The United Nations (UN) is a global organisation tasked with maintaining international peace and security while fostering friendly relations among nations. It is the largest, most recognized and most powerful intergovernmental organisation in the world.
Its activities include maintaining international peace and security, protecting human rights, delivering humanitarian aid, promoting sustainable development and upholding international law.
Due to the powers vested in its Charter and its unique international character, the United Nations can take action on the issues confronting humanity in the 21st century, such as peace and security, climate change, sustainable development, human rights, disarmament, terrorism, humanitarian and health emergencies, gender equality, governance, food production, and more.
The UN also provides a forum for its members to express their views in the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, and other bodies and committees
headquartered in New York City
Established year is 1945

History of UN Foundation

In 1899,the International Peace Conference was held in The Hague to elaborate instruments for settling crises peacefully, preventing wars and codifying rules of warfare.
It adopted the Convention for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputesand established the Permanent Court of Arbitration, which began work in 1902. This court was the forerunner of UN International Court of Justice.
The forerunner of the United Nations was the League of Nations,an organization conceived in circumstances of the First World War, and established in 1919 under the Treaty of Versailles “to promote international cooperation and to achieve peace and security.”
The International Labour Organization (ILO)was also created in 1919 under the Treaty of Versailles as an affiliated agency of the League.
The name “United Nations”, coined by United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt. A document called The Declaration by United Nationswas signed in 1942 by 26 nations, pledging their Governments to continue fighting together against the Axis Powers (Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis) and bound them against making a separate peace.
United Nations Conference on International Organization(1945)
Conference held in San Francisco (USA), was attended by representatives of 50 countries and signed the United Nations Charter.
The UN Charter of 1945is the foundational treaty of the United Nations, as an inter-governmental organization.
The main organs of the UN are the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice, and the UN Secretariat. All were established in 1945 when the UN was founded.

Components

The main organs of the UN are

The General Assembly,
The Security Council,
The Economic and Social Council,
The Trusteeship Council,
The International Court of Justice,
The UN Secretariat.

General Assembly

The General Assembly is the main deliberative, policymaking and representative organ of the UN. All 193 Member States of the UN are represented in the General Assembly, making it the only UN body with universal representation.
Each year, in September, the full UN membership meets in the General Assembly Hall in New York for the annual General Assembly session, and general debate, which many heads of state attend and address. Decisions on important questions, such as those on peace and security, admission of new members and budgetary matters, require a two-thirds majority of the General Assembly.
Decisions on other questions are by a simple majority. The General Assembly, each year, elects a GA President to serve a one-year term of office.

Security Council

The Security Council has primary responsibility, under the UN Charter, for the maintenance of international peace and security. It has 15 Members (5 permanent and 10 non-permanent members). Each Member has one vote. Under the Charter, all Member States are obligated to comply with Council decisions. The Security Council takes the lead in determining the existence of a threat to the peace or act of aggression. It calls upon the parties to a dispute to settle it by peaceful means and recommends methods of adjustment or terms of the settlement. In some cases, the Security Council can resort to imposing sanctions or even authorize the use of force to maintain or restore international peace and security. The Security Council has a Presidency, which rotates, and changes, every month.

Economic and Social Council

The Economic and Social Council is the principal body for coordination, policy review, policy dialogue and recommendations on economic, social and environmental issues, as well as the implementation of internationally agreed development goals. It serves as the central mechanism for activities of the UN system and its specialized agencies in the economic, social and environmental fields, supervising subsidiary and expert bodies. It has 54 Members, elected by the General Assembly for overlapping three-year terms. It is the United Nations’ central platform for reflection, debate, and innovative thinking on sustainable development.

Trusteeship Council

The Trusteeship Council was established in 1945 by the UN Charter, under Chapter XIII, to provide international supervision for 11 Trust Territories that had been placed under the administration of seven Member States, and ensure that adequate steps were taken to prepare the Territories for self-government and independence. By 1994, all Trust Territories had attained self-government or independence. The Trusteeship Council suspended operation on 1 November 1994. By a resolution adopted on 25 May 1994, the Council amended its rules of procedure to drop the obligation to meet annually and agreed to meet as occasion required — by its decision or the decision of its President, or at the request of a majority of its members or the General Assembly or the Security Council.

International Court of Justice

The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. Its seat is at the Peace Palace in the Hague (Netherlands). It is the only one of the six principal organs of the United Nations not located in New York (United States of America). The Court’s role is to settle, in accordance with international law, legal disputes submitted to it by States and to give advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by authorized United Nations organs and specialized agencies.

Secretariat

The Secretariat comprises the Secretary-General and tens of thousands of international UN staff members who carry out the day-to-day work of the UN as mandated by the General Assembly and the Organization’s other principal organs. The Secretary-General is the chief administrative officer of the Organization, appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for a five-year, renewable term. UN staff members are recruited internationally and locally, and work in duty stations and on peacekeeping missions all around the world. But serving the cause of peace in a violent world is a dangerous occupation. Since the founding of the United Nations, hundreds of brave men and women have given their lives in its service.

UN Specialized Agencies

The UN specialized agencies are autonomous organizations working with the United Nations. All were brought into relationship with the UN through negotiated agreements. Some existed before the First World War. Some were associated with the League of Nations. Others were created almost simultaneously with the UN. Others were created by the UN to meet emerging needs.

1.FAO

Headquarters: Rome, Italy

The Food and Agriculture Organization leads to international efforts to fight hunger. It is both a forum for negotiating agreements between developing and developed countries and a source of technical knowledge and information to aid development.

2. ICAO

Headquarters: Montreal, Canada

The International Civil Aviation Organization develops standards for global air transport and assists its 192 Member States in sharing the world’s skies to their socio-economic benefit.

3. IFAD

Headquarters: Rome, Italy

The International Fund for Agricultural Development, since it was created in 1977, has focused exclusively on rural poverty reduction, working with poor rural populations in developing countries to eliminate poverty, hunger and malnutrition; raise their productivity and incomes; and improve the quality of their lives.

4. ILO

Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland

The International Labor Organization promotes international labor rights by formulating international standards on the freedom to associate, collective bargaining, the abolition of forced labor, and equality of opportunity and treatment.

5. IMF

Headquarters: Washington, DC, USA

The International Monetary Fund fosters economic growth and employment by providing temporary financial assistance to countries to help ease balance of payments adjustment and technical assistance. The IMF currently has $28 billion in outstanding loans to 74 nations.

6. IMO

Headquarters: London, United Kingdom

The International Maritime Organization has created a comprehensive shipping regulatory framework, addressing safety and environmental concerns, legal matters, technical cooperation, security, and efficiency.

7. ITU

Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland

The International Telecommunication Union is the United Nations specialized agency for information and communication technologies. It is committed to connecting all the world’s people – wherever they live and whatever their means. Through our work, we protect and support everyone’s fundamental right to communicate

8.UNESCO

Headquarters: Paris, France

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization focuses on everything from teacher training to helping improve education worldwide to protecting important historical and cultural sites around the world. UNESCO added 28 new World Heritage Sites this year to the list of irreplaceable treasures that will be protected for today’s travelers and future generations.

9.UNIDO

Headquarters: Vienna, Austria

The United Nations Industrial Development Organization is the specialized agency of the United Nations that promotes industrial development for poverty reduction, inclusive globalization and environmental sustainability.

10.UNWTO

Headquarters: Madrid, Spain

The World Tourism Organization is the United Nations agency responsible for the promotion of responsible, sustainable and universally accessible tourism.

11. UPU

Headquarters: Bern, Switzerland

The Universal Postal Union is the primary forum for cooperation between postal sector players. It helps to ensure a truly universal network of up-to-date products and services.

12. WHO

Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland

The World Health Organization is the directing and coordinating authority on international health within the United Nations system. The objective of WHO is the attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level of health. Health, as defined in the WHO Constitution, is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.

13. WIPO

Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland

The World Intellectual Property Organization protects intellectual property throughout the world through 23 international treaties.

14. WMO

Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland

The World Meteorological Organization facilitates the free international exchange of meteorological data and information and the furtherance of its use in aviation, shipping, security, and agriculture, among other things.

15. World Bank

Headquarters: Washington, DC, USA

The World Bank focuses on poverty reduction and the improvement of living standards worldwide by providing low-interest loans, interest-free credit, and grants to developing countries for education, health, infrastructure, and communications, among other things. The World Bank works in over 100 countries.

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)
International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID)*
International Development Association (IDA)
International Finance Corporation (IFC)
Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA)*

* International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) and Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) are not specialized agencies in accordance with Articles 57 and 63 of the Charter but are part of the World Bank Group.

Other Entities and Bodies

UNAIDS

Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland

The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) leads and inspires the world to achieve its shared vision of zero new HIV infections, zero discrimination and zero AIDS-related deaths. UNAIDS unites the efforts of 11 UN organizations—UNHCR, UNICEF, WFP, UNDP, UNFPA, UNODC, UN Women, ILO, UNESCO, WHO and the World Bank—and works closely with global and national partners towards ending the AIDS epidemic by 2030 as part of the Sustainable Development Goals.

UNHCR

Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland

The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees – UNHCR protects refugees worldwide and facilitates their return home or resettlement.

UNIDIR

Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland

The United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research is a voluntarily funded autonomous institute within the United Nations. An impartial actor, the Institute generates ideas and promotes action on disarmament and security. UNIDIR brings together states, international organizations, civil society, the private sector and academia to work together—internationally, regionally and locally—to build and implement creative solutions that will benefit all states and peoples.

UNITAR

Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland

An autonomous UN body established in 1963, the United Nations Institute for Training and Research is a training arm of the United Nations System and has the mandate to enhance the effectiveness of the UN through diplomatic training, and to increase the impact of national actions through public awareness-raising, education and training of public policy officials.

UNOPS

Headquarters: Copenhagen, Denmark

The mission of the United Nations Office for Project Services is to help people build better lives and help countries achieve peace and sustainable development. UNOPS helps the UN, governments and other partners to manage projects, and deliver sustainable infrastructure and procurement in an efficient way.

UNRWA

Headquarters: Amman, Jordan

The United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees has contributed to the welfare and human development of four generations of Palestine refugees. It’s services encompass education, health care, relief and social services, camp infrastructure and improvement, microfinance and emergency assistance, including in times of armed conflict. It reports only to the UN General Assembly.

UNSSC

Headquarters: Turin, Italy

The United Nations System Staff College is the learning organization of the United Nations system. It designs and delivers learning programmes for staff of the UN system and its partners. It helps the United Nations become more effective by fostering a common leadership and management culture across the system.

UN Women

Headquarters: New York City, USA

UN Women merges and builds on the important work of four previously distinct parts of the UN system, which focus exclusively on gender equality and women’s empowerment.

Related Organizations

CTBTO

Headquarters: Vienna, Austria

The Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization promotes the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (which is not yet in force) and the build-up of the verification regime so that it is operational when the Treaty enters into force.

IAEA

Headquarters: Vienna, Austria

The International Atomic Energy Agency, is the world’s centre for cooperation in the nuclear field. The Agency works with its Member States and multiple partners worldwide to promote the safe, secure and peaceful use of nuclear technologies.

IOM

Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland

The International Organization for Migration works to help ensure the orderly and humane management of migration, to promote international cooperation on migration issues, to assist in the search for practical solutions to migration problems and to provide humanitarian assistance to migrants in need, including refugees and internally displaced people.

OPCW

Headquarters: The Hague, Netherlands

The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons is the implementing body of the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), which entered into force in 1997. The OPCW Member States work together to achieve a world free of chemical weapons.

UNFCCC

Headquarters: Bonn, Germany

The UNFCCC Secretariat (UN Climate Change) was established in 1992 when countries adopted the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). With the subsequent adoption of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 and the Paris Agreement in 2015, Parties to these three agreements have progressively reaffirmed the Secretariat’s role as the United Nations entity tasked with supporting the global response to the threat of climate change.

WTO

Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland

The World Trade Organization is a forum for governments to negotiate trade agreements and a place where member governments try to sort out the trade problems they face with each other.

UN Contribution to World

Peace and Security

Maintaining Peace and Security: By sending peacekeeping and observer missions to the world’s trouble spots over the past six decades, the United Nations has been able to restore calm, allowing many countries to recover from conflict.

Preventing Nuclear Proliferation: For over the five decades, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has served as the world’s nuclear inspector. IAEA experts work to verify that safeguarded nuclear material is used only for peaceful purposes. To date, the Agency has safeguards agreements with more than 180 States.
Supporting Disarmament :UN treaties are the legal backbone of disarmament efforts:
the Chemical Weapons Convention-1997has been ratified by 190 States, the Mine-Ban Convention-1997 by 162,and the Arms Trade Treaty-2014 by 69.
At the local level, UN peacekeepers often work to implement disarmament agreements between warring parties.

Preventing genocide: The United Nations brought about the first-ever treaty to combat genocide—acts committed with the intent to destroy a national, ethnical, racial or religious group.

The 1948 Genocide Convention has been ratified by 146 States, which commits to prevent and punish actions of genocide in war and in peacetime. The UN tribunals for Yugoslavia and Rwanda, as well as UN-supported courts in Cambodia, have put would-be genocide perpetrators on notice that such crimes would no longer be tolerated.

Economic Development

Promoting Development: Since 2000, promoting living standards and human skills and potential throughout the world have been guided by the Millennium Development Goals.
The UN Development Programme (UNDP)supports more than 4,800 projects to reduce poverty, promote good governance, address crises and preserve the environment.
The UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF)works in more than 150 countries, primarily on child protection, immunization, girls’ education and emergency aid.
The UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)helps developing countries make the most of their trade opportunities.
The World Bank provides developing countries with loans and grants, and has supported more than 12,000 projects in more than 170 countries since 1947.
Alleviating Rural Poverty: The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) provides low-interest loans and grants to very poor rural people.
Focusing on African Development: Africa continues to be a high priority for the United Nations. The continent receives 36 per cent of UN system expenditures for development, the largest share among the world’s regions. All UN agencies have special programmes to benefit Africa.
Promoting Women’s Well-being: UN Women is the UN organization dedicated to gender equality and the empowerment of women.

Fighting Hunger: The Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO) leads global efforts to defeat hunger. FAO also helps developing countries to modernize and improve agriculture, forestry and fisheries practices in ways that conserve natural resources and improve nutrition.

Commitment in Support of Children: UNICEF has pioneered to provide vaccines and other aid desperately needed by children caught in armed conflict. The Convention on the Rights of the Child-1989 has become law in nearly all countries.
Tourism: The World Tourism Organization is the UN agency responsible for the promotion of responsible, sustainable and universally accessible tourism.
Its Global Code of Ethics for Tourism seeks to maximize the benefits of tourism while minimizing its negative impact.
Global Think Tank: The United Nations is at the forefront of research that seeks solutions to global problems.
The UN Population Division is a leading source of information and research on global population trends, producing up-to-date demographic estimates and projections.
The UN Statistics Division is the hub of the global statistical system, compiling and disseminating global economic, demographic, social, gender, environment and energy statistics.
The United Nations Development Programme’s annual Human Development Report provides independent, empirically grounded analyses of major development issues, trends and policies, including the groundbreaking Human Development Index.
The United Nations World Economic and Social Survey, the Word Bank’s World Development Report, the International Monetary Fund’s World Economic Outlook and other studies help policymakers to make informed decisions.

Social Development

Preserving Historic, Cultural, Architectural and Natural Sites: The UNESCO has helped 137 countries to protect ancient monuments and historic, cultural and natural sites.
It has negotiated international conventions to preserve cultural property, cultural diversity and outstanding cultural and natural sites. More than 1,000 such sites have been designated as having exceptional universal value – as World Heritage Sites.
Taking the lead on global issues:
The first United Nations conference on the environment(Stockholm, 1972) helped to alert world public opinion on the dangers faced by our planet, triggering action by governments.
The first world conference on women(Mexico City, 1985) put women’s right, equality and progress on the global agenda.
Other landmark events include the first international conference on human rights (Teheran, 1968), the first world population conference(Bucharest, 1974) and the first world climate conference (Geneva, 1979).
Those events brought together experts and policymakers, as well as activists, from around the world, prompting sustained global action.
Regular follow-up conferences have helped to sustain the momentum.

Human Rights

UN General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948.
It has helped to enact dozens of legally binding agreements on political, civil, economic, social and cultural rights.
UN human rights bodies have focused world attention on cases of torture, disappearance, arbitrary detention and other violations.
Fostering Democracy: The UN promotes and strengthens democratic institutions and practices around the world, including by helping people in many countries to participate in free and fair elections.
In the 1990s, the UN organized or observed landmark elections in Cambodia, El Salvador, South Africa, Mozambique and Timor-Leste.
More recently, the UN has provided crucial assistance in elections in Afghanistan, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Iraq, Nepal, Sierra Leone and Sudan.
Ending Apartheid in South Africa: By imposing measures ranging from an arms embargo to a convention against segregated sporting events, the United Nations was a major factor in bringing about the downfall of the apartheid system.
In 1994, elections in which all South Africans were allowed to participate on an equal basis led to the establishment of a multiracial Government.
Promoting Women’s Rights: The 1979 UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, ratified by 189 countries, has helped to promote the rights of women worldwide.

Environment

Climate change is a global problem that demands a global solution. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which brings together 2,000 leading climate change scientists, issues comprehensive scientific assessments every five or six years.
IPCC was established in 1988 under the auspices of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)and the World Meteorological Organization for the purpose of assessing “the scientific, technical and socioeconomic information relevant for the understanding of the risk of human-induced climate change.
UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) provides foundation for UN members to negotiate agreements to reduce emissions that contribute to climate change and help countries adapt to its effects. (UNFCCC-1992is an international environmental treaty adopted and opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) in 1992.)
Global Environment Facility, which brings together 10 UN agencies, funds projects in developing countries.
Protecting the Ozone Layer: The UNEP and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) have been instrumental in highlighting the damage caused to Earth’s ozone layer.
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer-1985provided the framework necessary to create regulatory measures for international reductions in the production of chlorofluorocarbons. Convention provided foundation for Montreal protocol.
The Montreal Protocol-1987is an international environmental agreement with universal ratification to protect the earth’s ozone layer by eliminating use of ozone depleting substances (ODS) such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons.
Kigali amendment (to the Montreal Protocol)-2016:was adopted to phase down production and consumption of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) worldwide.
Banning Toxic Chemicals: The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants-2001seeks to rid the world of some of the most dangerous chemicals ever created

India’s contribution to UN

India was one of the original members of the League of Nations. As a signatory of the Treaty of Versailles-1919,India was granted automatic entry to the League of Nations.
India was represented by her Secretary of State, Edwin Samuel Montagu; the Maharaja of Bikaner Sir Ganga Singh; Satyendra Prasanno Sinha, Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for India.
India was among the original members of the United Nations that signed the Declaration by United Nations at Washington, D.C. in 1944. This declaration became the basis of the United Nations (UN), which was formalized in the United Nations Charter signed by 50 countries in 1945.
By 1946, India had started raising concerns regarding colonialism, apartheid and racial discrimination.
India was among the most outspoken critics of apartheid and racial discrimination (discriminatory treatment of Indians in the Union of South Africa) in South Africa, being the first country to have raised the issue in the UN in 1946.
India took an active part in Drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights-1948.
Its experience with the UN had not always been positive. On Kashmir issue, Nehru’s faith in the UN and adherence to its principles proved costly as UN that was packed with pro-Pakistani partisan powers.
Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit was elected the first woman President of the UN General Assembly in 1953.
India’s status as a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)and the Group of 77 (G-77) cemented its position within the UN system as a leading advocate of the concerns and aspirations of developing countries and the creation of a more equitable international economic and political order.
It involved in conflict with China (1962), two wars (1965, 1971) with Pakistan and entered a period of political instability, economic stagnation, food shortages and near-famine
India’s role diminished in the UN which came both as a result of its image and a deliberate decision by the post-Nehru political leadership to adopt a low profile at the UN and speak only on vital Indian interests.
India has been a member of the UN Security Council for seven terms (a total of 14 years), with the most recent being the 2011–12 term.
India is a member of G4 (Brazil, Germany, India and Japan), a group of nations who back each other in seeking a permanent seat on the Security Council and advocate in favour of the reformation of the UNSC.
The Russian Federation, United States, United Kingdom and France support India and the other G4 countries gaining permanent seats.
India is also part of the G-77.
The Group of 77 (G-77) was established on 15 June 1964 by seventy-seven developing countries signatories of the “Joint Declaration of the Seventy-Seven Developing Countries”.
It is designed to promote its members’ collective economic interests and create an enhanced joint negotiating capacity in the United Nations.
Because of the historical significance, the name G-77 has been kept despite the group’s growth to include more than 130 countries.
UN peacekeeping missions: From protecting civilians, disarming ex-combatants and helping countries transition from conflict to peace, India has served the cause of peace.
At present (2019), India is the third largest troop contributor with 6593 personnel deployed with UN Peacekeeping Missions (Lebanon, Congo, Sudan and South Sudan, Golan Heights, Ivory Coast, Haiti, Liberia).
India has suffered the highest number of fatalities (164 out of close to 3,800 personnel) among countries that have sent forces to the United Nations peacekeeping mission since 1948.
Mahatma Gandhi has had a lasting influence on the United Nations. His ideals of non-violence deeply influenced the United Nations at the time of its inception.
In 2007, the United Nations declared 2nd October, Mahatma’s Gandhi’s birthday, as the International day of non-violence.
In 2014, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution commemorating 21 June as the International Yoga Day.
It recognises the holistic benefits of this timeless practice and its inherent compatibility with the principles and values of the United Nations.
Plea for International Equality Day: In 2016, with focus on combating inequalities to achieve Sustainable Development Goals, B. R. Ambedkar’s birth anniversary was observed at the United Nations for the first time. India has made a plea to declare April 14 as International Equality Day.

Conclusion

Despite having many short-comings, UN has played a crucial role making this human society more civil, more peaceful & secure in comparison to time of its origin at 2ndWorld War.
United Nations, being the world’s largest democratic body of all nations, its responsibility towards humanity is very high in terms of building democratic society, economic development of people living in acute poverty, & preserving the Earth’s Ecosystem in concern with Climate Change.

United Nations General Assembly (UNGA)

Introduction:

Popularly known as the parliament of the world,where all the 193 UN member states are represented, the UNGA is the deliberative, policymaking and representative organ of the UN.

The UNGA is a principal component of the United Nations. It is the main governing body of the organisation and is also the most representative body in the UN.

All the members of the UN are represented in the UNGA, which is sometimes referred to as simply the GA. Hence, it has 193 members (all the UN member countries).
It meets annually in its headquarters in New York City, generally in the month of September. It can also meet at other times according to the need.
The UNGA is headed by its President, who is elected for a term of one year.
It is sometimes called the parliament of the world.
The UNGA deliberates and decides on important matters such as peace and security, and other international issues.
It also decides on the admission of new members.
Decisions are taken by voting. Generally, a simple majority is considered but in case of important decisions, a two-thirds majority is considered. Each member has one vote.
Unlike the Security Council, there is no veto power bestowed to anyone.
In 1953, Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit became the eight President of the UNGA, the only Indian GA President to date.

United Nations General Assembly (UNGA/GA/AG)

It is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN), the only one in which all member nations have equal representation, and the main deliberative, policy-making, and representative organ of the UN.
Its powers are to oversee the budget of the UN, appoint the non-permanent members to the Security Council, appoint the Secretary-General of the United Nations, receive reports from other parts of the UN, and make recommendations in the form of General Assembly Resolutions. It has also established numerous subsidiary organs.
The General Assembly currently meets under its president or secretary-general in annual sessions at the headquarters of the United Nations in New York City, the main part of which lasts from September to December and part of January until all issues are addressed (which often is just before the next session’s start). It can also reconvene for special and emergency special sessions.
Its composition, functions, powers, voting, and procedures are set out in Chapter IV of the United Nations Charter.
Voting in the General Assembly on certain important questions, namely, recommendations on peace and security, budgetary concerns, and the election, admission, suspension or expulsion of members is by a two-thirds majority of those present and voting. Other questions are decided by a straightforward majority. Each member country has one vote.
Apart from approval of budgetary matters, including adoption of a scale of assessment, Assembly resolutions are not binding on the members.
The Assembly may make recommendations on any matters within the scope of the UN, except matters of peace and security under Security Council consideration.

Functions and Powers of UNGA

The functions and powers of the UNGA are described below:

Considering and approving the UN budget and establishing the financial assessments of member countries.
Considering and making recommendations on the general principles of cooperation to maintain global peace & security, including disarmament.
Electing the non-permanent members of the UNSC and the members of other UN councils and organs and, appointing the Secretary-General, as per the UNSC’s recommendations.
Discussing questions concerning international peace & security and making recommendations on it (unless the matter is currently being discussed by the Security Council).
Initiating studies and making recommendations to boost international political cooperation, developing and codifying international law, realizing fundamental freedoms and human rights, and creating global collaboration in the social, economic, humanitarian, educational, cultural and health domains.
Making recommendations for the peaceful settlement of any situation that could hamper friendly relations among nations.
The UNGA also considers reports from the UNSC and other organs of the UN.
In case of threats to peace, and where the UNSC has failed to take action because of the negative vote (veto) of a permanent member, the GA can consider the matter and recommend actions to its members.

UNGA Subsidiary Organs

The UNGA has many subsidiary organs, in the form of commissions, committees, boards, councils and working groups.

The commissions of the UNGA are:

Disarmament Commission
International Law Commission
International Civil Service Commission
United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine
United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL)
United Nations Peacebuilding Commission

Roles

Takes a decision on important matters such as peace and security, discusses various global issues and budgetary matters.
Decides on matters such as the admission of new members.
Decisions are taken through a vote. Admission of new members and budgetary matters require a two-thirds majority, while the decision on other issues are taken by a simple majority.
Each sovereign state gets one vote and the votes are not binding on the membership, except in budgetary matters.
The Assembly has no binding votes or veto powers like the UN Security Council.
The UNGA can express world opinion, promote international cooperation in various fields and make recommendations to the UNSC and elect the Security Council’s non-permanent members

Which countries are not a part of UNGA?

Among the world’s 196 countries, 193 are UN member states and three nations- Palestine, the Vatican City and Taiwan are not a part of the international organization as their country status is not recognized globally due to political and religious reasons.

Tijjani Muhammad-Bande

He is a Nigerian political scientist, administrator and career diplomat.
He was the permanent representative of Nigeria to the United Nations and served as the Vice-President of the General Assembly during its 71st session in September 2016.

According to the Charter of the United Nations, the General Assembly may:

Consider and approve the United Nations budget and establish the financial assessments of Member States;
Elect the non-permanent members of the Security Council and the members of other United Nations councils and organs and, on the recommendation of the Security Council, appoint the Secretary-General;
Consider and make recommendations on the general principles of cooperation for maintaining international peace and security, including disarmament;
Discuss any question relating to international peace and security and, except where a dispute or situation is currently being discussed by the Security Council, make recommendations on it;
Discuss, with the same exception, and make recommendations on any questions within the scope of the Charter or affecting the powers and functions of any organ of the United Nations;
Initiate studies and make recommendations to promote international political cooperation, the development and codification of international law, the realization of human rights and fundamental freedoms, and international collaboration in the economic, social, humanitarian, cultural, educational and health fields;
Make recommendations for the peaceful settlement of any situation that might impair friendly relations among countries;

Consider reports from the Security Council and other United Nations organs.

UN Security Council:

The Security Council was established by the UN Charter in 1945. It is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations. The other 5 organs of the United Nations are—the General Assembly, the Trusteeship Council, the Economic and Social Council, the International Court of Justice, and the Secretariat.
Its primary responsibility is to work to maintain international peace and security.
The council has 15 members: the five permanent members and 10 non-permanent members elected for two-year terms.
The five permanent members are the United States, the Russian Federation, France, China and the United Kingdom.
The UNSC is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations and is charged with the maintenance of international peace and security.
Its powers include the establishment of peacekeeping operations, the establishment of international sanctions, and the authorization of military action through Security Council resolutions.
It is the only UN body with the authority to issue binding resolutions to member states.
The Security Council consists of fifteen members. Russia, the United Kingdom, France, China, and the United States—serve as the body’s five permanent members.
These permanent members can veto any substantive Security Council resolution, including those on the admission of new member states or candidates for Secretary-General.
The Security Council also has 10 non-permanent members, elected on a regional basis to serve two-year terms. The body’s presidency rotates monthly among its members.

Key points

Each member of the Security Council has one vote. Decisions of the Security Council on matters are made by an affirmative vote of nine members including the concurring votes of the permanent members. A “No” vote from one of the five permanent members blocks the passage of the resolution.
Any member of the United Nations which is not a member of the Security Council may participate, without vote, in the discussion of any question brought before the Security Council whenever the latter considers that the interests of that member are specially affected.
The council’s presidency is a capacity that rotates every month among its 15 members.
The council is headquartered at
Like the UN as a whole, it was created following World War II to address the failings of a previous international organization, the League of Nations, in maintaining world peace.
The First Session of the UN Council was held in London on 17th January 1947. The five permanent members are given ‘great power unanimity’ referred to as the veto power, which means if any of these countries veto a resolution it can’t be passed even if it has the 9 votes needed.

India Elected as Non-Permanent Member of UNSC

In June 2020, India was elected to the UNSC as a non-permanent member, winning 184 out of the 193 votes at the UNGA. This membership is for 2021-22. India was the only candidate from the Asia-Pacific category for the year 2021-22. This is India’s eighth stint at the UNSC. Previously, India had been a member in the years 1950-1951, 1967-1968, 1972-1973, 1977-1978, 1984-1985, 1991-1992 and 2011-12.

India and UNSC

India has been trying to make its way into the list of the permanent members of the UNSC but has not been successful. Despite India being a country with a huge population, a growing economy and a nuclear power, it is not a member of the UNSC.

India is one among the G4 countries (India, Germany, Japan, Brazil), which gives it an edge at becoming one of the permanent members of the UNSC. Given below is a list of claims raised by India to ensure its place as one of UNSC’s permanent members:

India is the fastest-growing economy in the world.
India has recently acquired the status of a Nuclear Weapons State.
India is the second-largest in terms of population and the largest liberal democracy in the world.
The country ranks high in purchasing power parity and is a huge contributor to UN Peacekeeping Missions.

For India to become a permanent member, apart from garnering the minimum required votes from the other United Nations members, India would need to mend its way with all the UN countries in order to get the required votes.

Roadblocks in Getting a Permanent Seat at UNSC

Although it may seem like a simple process, it is made difficult by the objections of certain permanent members of the Security Council. China, in particular, has been blocking India’s push for a permanent seat at the Council. China believes that granting India a permanent seat at the UNSC will lead to Indian interests being of paramount importance in the geopolitics of the subcontinent, a sentiment echoed by its ally, Pakistan.
In addition to this, India is also seen as a proliferating nuclear power. Analysts believe that this is the single most factor that is being a roadblock for India’s UNSC dreams.
To grant it a permanent seat without asking for any steps to cap its nuclear capabilities is an exercise in futility. As of late 2019, France has become the latest to join other nations in pushing for India’s permanent UNSC seat, but with the permanent 5 members obstinate about India having to give up its nuclear capabilities to join, India being a permanent member of the UNSC seem like a distant dream.

Who are the 15 members of the United Nations Security Council?

Along with the five permanent members – China, United States, Russia, the United Kingdom and France – there are 10 non-permanent members who are elected for a two-year term by the General Assembly. As of 2020, the current members are listed below along with the end of term year in brackets:

Belgium (2020)
Dominican Republic (2020)
Estonia (2021)
Germany (2020)
Indonesia (2020)
Niger (2021)
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (2021)
South Africa (2020)
Tunisia (2021)
Viet Nam (2021)

What is the role of the United Nations Security Council?

The Security Council has primary responsibility, under the United Nations Charter, for the maintenance of international peace and security. It is for the Security Council to determine when and where a UN peace operation should be deployed. The first time the UN Security Council deployed a peacekeeping force anywhere in the world was during the Korean War, which began on 25 June 1950 and ended on 27 July 1953. Since then, UN peacekeeping forces have been deployed the world over including in the Balkans and Africa.

How did China acquire a permanent seat in the UN Security Council?

The United Nations Security Council’s permanent members consisted of the victorious Allies of World War 2 who had played a key role in defeating Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan. At first, the seat was given to the anti-communist Kuomintang Government of the Republic of China. In 1949, however, the Communist-led rebels under Mao Zedong won the Chinese civil war. This led to the fall of the Kuomintang Government, forcing it to be relocated to the island of Taiwan. Since the Communist Government claimed to be the sole representative of China, the remaining members thought it would be prudent to allow the new Chinese government to become a permanent member on account of its vast army and support from the Soviet Union.

Permanent member of India issue

India’s election as a non-permanent member has understandably ignited the hope that its quest for permanent membership.
Nothing is farther from the truth.
Seeking to amend the Charter to add new permanent members is difficult task.
None of the proposals has the possibility of securing two-thirds majority of the General Assembly and the votes of the five permanent members.
A majority of the UN members are against the privileges of the permanent members, particularly the veto.
India’s performance in the Council will not lead to its elevation to permanent membership as the opposition to any expansion is not India-specific.

Role of India as non-permanent member

The non-permanent members have a collective veto over every resolution in the Council.
As a part of collective veto, India will have a higher profile at the UN for the next two years
Permanent members can prevent the adoption of resolutions by themselves through veto.
But they need at least nine votes to get a resolution passed.
India will also have a rare peep into the consultations chamber of the UNSC, which is closed to non-members of the Council.
India will get involved in many issues in which it may not have any direct interest.
Since India does not have a veto, it shall have to proceed cautiously not to offend anyone.

India’s current stint

India has walked into a far more contentious UNSC.
Differences between the US, China and Russia have become intractable.
China has risen to be a great power and is making expansive claims and trying to redeem them.
Russia has moved closer to China.
President Donald Trump’s questioning of America’s traditional alliances has sharpening disagreements between the U.S. and its European allies.

5 Objectives India should pursue at UNSC

1) Maintaining the effectiveness of UNSC

The UNSC is becoming less effective today due to the deep divisions among the major powers.
After a brief moment of great power cooperation in the 1990s, we are now back in an era of contestation.
But there will be enough opportunity for India to play a larger role amid renewed great power rivalry.
The UNSC offers room for sustained diplomatic interaction between the major powers, who could create new opportunities for cooperation.
The US and China could explore potential common ground even amidst their broad-based confrontation.
All other powers, including India, will, of course, want to be sure that the US-China cooperation is not at the expense of others.

2) Making UNSC more representative

Making the UNSC more representative has been one of India’s demands since the end of the Cold War.
China has no interest in letting two other Asian powers — India and Japan — join the UNSC as permanent members.
India’s campaign, in partnership with Brazil, Germany and Japan, to expand the UNSC must continue.
For the campaign will help highlight an important principle and reveal the nature of political resistance to it.

3) Dealing with hostile China and unipolar Asia

India, which was eager to build a multipolar world with Beijing, now finds itself in a unipolar Asia that is centred around China.
Meanwhile, the boundary dispute has worsened over the last decade.
China has repeatedly tried to get the UNSC to focus on India’s constitutional changes in Kashmir.
Beijing protects Pakistan from the international pressures that India has sought to mobilise at various fora.
On the nuclear front, China continues to block India’s membership of the Nuclear Suppliers Group.

4) Strengthening new coalitions

The engagement with peace and security issues at the UNSC will allow India to strengthen its new coalitions such as the Quad.
India could also use the UNSC tenure to deepen collaboration with its European partners like France and Germany in the security arena, and find common ground with the U.K.
India must also sustain an intensive dialogue with Moscow on all international issues, notwithstanding Russia’s worsening problems with the West and closer ties to China.

5) Revitalising engagement with partners in the “global south”

Two sub-groups of the global south should be of special interest for India.

1) The numerous small island states face existential challenges from global warming and rising sea levels.

They also struggle to exercise control over their large maritime estates.
Supporting the sovereignty and survivability of the island states is a crucial political task for India.

2) Africa is the other priority.

Nearly half of UNSC meetings, 60 per cent of its documents, and 70 per cent of its resolutions are about peace and security in Africa.
The continent has three seats in the UNSC(Kenya, Niger and Tunisia) and there is regular consultation between the UNSC and the Peace and Security Council (PSC) of the African Union (AU).
The UNSC tenure is a good moment for Delhi to intensify India’s engagement on peace and security issues in Africa at bilateral, regional and global levels.

Asian Development Bank:

Asian Development Bank (ADB) was established in the year 1966, with head office at Manila (Philippines). It has 67 members from the Asia Pacific region. This bank was modeled on the lines of the world bank. Japan holds the largest share in ADB with 15.677%, followed by U.S.A (15.567%), China (6.473%), and India (5.812%). The aim of the ADB is social development by reducing poverty in the Asia Pacific with inclusive growth, sustainable growth, and regional integration. This is carried out through an 80% investment in the public sector. ADB invests in infrastructure, health, public administration system, helping nations to reduce the impact of climate change and to manage natural resources.

Asian Development Bank (ADB) & India

India started availing of ADB’s assistance in 1986. The aim is of Asian Development Bank is to support India in the following fields:
Industrial competitiveness
Jobs creation
Growth acceleration of low-income states
Environmental and climate change challenges

There are six sectors in India where we can see ADB’s presence:

Transport
Energy
Water and urban services
Finance and public sector management
Agriculture and natural resources, and
Human development
Urban environmental management, including water management, sanitation, and sewerage and solid waste management.

Recent development between ADB & India:

ADB and India have signed a loan of $206 million to strengthen urban services in 5 Tamil Nadu cities
Asian Development Bank (ADB) has listed its 10-year masala bonds worth Rs 850 crore on the global debt listing platform of India INX
Asian Development Bank (ADB) had prepared a Conceptual Development Plan (CDP) for Vizag-Chennai Industrial Corridor (VCIC)
ADB has offered to provide USD 4 million to member countries to contain coronavirus outbreak.
Asian Development Bank (ADB) on Governance – UPSC Exam
A policy paper titled, “Governance: Sound Development Management” was outlined in October 1995. ADB defined governance as, ‘the manner in which power is exercised in the management of a country’s economic and social resources for development’.

ADB gave two dimensions to governance:

Political – Democracy, Human Rights

Economic – Efficient management of public resources

ADB has identified four basic elements of good governance:

Accountability
Participation
Predictability
Transparency

All the above elements are interlinked and mutually supportive and reinforcing. Accountability is often related to participation and is also the ultimate safeguard of predictability. Transparency and predictability in the functioning of a legal framework would serve to ensure the accountability of public institutions.

BRICS

BRICS is an acronym for the grouping of the world’s leading emerging economies, namely Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa.
The BRICS Leaders’ Summit is convened annually.

Structure

BRICS does not exist in form of organization, but it is an annual summit between the supreme leaders of five nations.
The Chairmanship of the forum is rotated annually among the members, in accordance with the acronym B-R-I-C-S.
BRICS cooperation in the past decade has expanded to include an annual programme of over 100 sectoral meetings.

Salient Features

Together, BRICS accounts for about 40% of the world’s population and about 30% of the GDP (Gross Domestic Product), making it a critical economic engine.
It’s an emerging investment market and global power bloc.

Genesis

The acronym “BRICS” was initially formulated in 2001 by economist Jim O’Neill, of Goldman Sachs, in a report on growth prospects for the economies of Brazil, Russia, India and China – which together represented a significant share of the world’s production and population.
In 2006, the four countries initiated a regular informal diplomatic coordination, with annual meetings of Foreign Ministers at the margins of the General Debate of the UN General Assembly (UNGA).
This successful interaction led to the decision that the dialogue was to be carried out at the level of Heads of State and Government in annual Summits.

Timeline

The first BRIC Summit took place in 2009 in the Russian Federation and focused on issues such as reform of the global financial architecture.
South Africa was invited to join BRIC in December 2010, after which the group adopted the acronym BRICS. South Africa subsequently attended the Third BRICS Summit in Sanya, China, in March 2011.

Objectives

The BRICS seeks to deepen, broaden and intensify cooperation within the grouping and among the individual countries for more sustainable, equitable and mutually beneficial development.
BRICS takes into consideration each member’s growth, development and poverty objectives to ensure relations are built on the respective country’s economic strengths and to avoid competition where possible.
BRICS is emerging as a new and promising political-diplomatic entity with diverse objectives, far beyond the original objective of reforming global financial institutions.

Impacts of BRICS on global institutional reforms

The main reason for co-operation to start among the BRICs nation was the financial crises of 2008. The crises raised doubts over sustainability of the dollar-dominated monetary system.
The BRICs called for the “the reform of multilateral institutions in order that they reflect the structural changes in the world economy and the increasingly central role that emerging markets now play”.
BRICs managed to push for institutional reform which led to International Monetary Fund (IMF) quota reform in 2010. Thus the financial crises had momentarily reduced western legitimacy and briefly let the BRICs countries become “agenda setters” in multilateral institutions.

New Development Bank

NDB is headquartered in Shanghai.
At the Fourth BRICS Summit in New Delhi (2012) the possibility of setting up a new Development Bank was considered to mobilize resources for infrastructure and sustainable development projects in BRICS and other emerging economies, as well as in developing countries.
During the Sixth BRICS Summit in Fortaleza (2014) the leaders signed the Agreement establishing the New Development Bank (NDB).
Fortaleza Declaration stressed that the NDB will strengthen cooperation among BRICS and will supplement the efforts of multilateral and regional financial institutions for global development thus contributing to sustainable and balanced growth.
NDB’s key areas of operation are clean energy, transport infrastructure, irrigation, sustainable urban development and economic cooperation among the member countries.

AIIB

The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) is a multilateral development bank with a mission to improve social and economic outcomes in Asia.
It is established by the AIIB Articles of Agreement (entered into force Dec. 25, 2015) which is a multilateral treaty. The Parties (57 founding members) to agreement comprise the Membership of the Bank.
It is headquartered in Beijing and began its operations in January 2016.
The members to Bank have now grown to 97 approved members worldwide. There are 27 prospective members including Armenia, Lebanon, Brazil, South Africa, Greece, etc.
Fourteen of the G-20 nations are AIIB members including France, Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom.
By investing in sustainable infrastructure and other productive sectors in Asia and beyond, it will better connect people, services and markets that over time will impact the lives of billions and build a better future.

Goals

To foster sustainable economic development, create wealth and improve infrastructure connectivity in Asia by investing in infrastructure and other productive sectors.
To promote regional cooperation and partnership in addressing development challenges by working in close collaboration with other multilateral and bilateral development institutions.
To promote investment in the public and private capital for development purposes, in particular for development of infrastructure and other productive sectors.
To utilize the resources at its disposal for financing such development in the region, including those projects and programs which will contribute most effectively to the harmonious economic growth of the region;
To encourage private investment in projects, enterprises and activities contributing to economic development in the region when private capital is not available on reasonable terms and conditions.
The NDB functions on a consultative mechanism among the BRICS members with all the member countries possessing equal rights.

Importance for India

India can benefit from collective strength of BRICS by way of consultation and cooperation on economic issues of mutual interests, as well as topical global issues, such as, international terrorism, climate change, food and energy security, reforms of global governance institutions, etc.
India remains engaged with the other BRICS countries on its NSG membership.
The NDB will help India to raise and avail resources for their infrastructure and sustainable development projects. The NDB has approved its first set of loans, which included a loan of US$ 250 million in respect of India for Multi tranche Financing Facility for Renewable Energy Financing Scheme’.

Governance

Board of Governors
The Board of Governors consists of one Governor and one Alternate Governor appointed by each member country.
Governors and Alternate Governors serve at the pleasure of the appointing member. All the powers of the AIIB are vested in the Board of Governors.
Annual Meeting
The first AIIB Board of Governors meeting was held in Beijing, China in 2016.
The second was held in Jeju, Korea in 2017 and the third was held in Mumbai, India in 2018.
On July 12-13, 2019 Luxembourg will host AIIB’s first Annual Meeting to be held outside Asia.
The theme of the 2019 Annual Meeting is “Cooperation and Connectivity” in recognition of the economic and social benefits to be realized through better connectivity within and between countries and regions, including Europe and Asia.
The 2020 Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank’s (AIIB) Annual Meeting, on July 28 and 29, 2020, brought together AIIB’s Governors and Senior Management in a virtual session to connect stakeholders and experts to discuss how to build a more inclusive and resilient tomorrow.
Connecting for Tomorrow is Theme of 2020
INDIA and AIIB
India was among the AIIB’s 57 founding members in 2016.
It is also its second-largest shareholder (with 7.62% voting shares) after China (26.06%).
It has received USD 4.35 billion from the Bank.
This is the highest of any country, with the bank so far approving loans of USD 19.6 billion to support 87 projects in 24 countries.
AIIB has approved financing projects in India in a host of sectors like energy, transport and water including the Bangalore metro rail project (USD 335 million), Gujarat rural roads project (USD 329 million) and Phase 3 of the Mumbai urban transport project (USD 500 million).
In a recent virtual meeting, India said that it expects AIIB to introduce new financing instruments, provide financing for social infrastructure and to integrate development of climate resilient and sustainable energy access infrastructure into AIIB’s recovery response to the Covid-19 crisis.

This implies that India is unlikely to alter its engagement with the China-led Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB), despite a host of offensive measures announced recently to reduce its trade and investment links with China.

SAARC

The idea of co-operation in South Asia was discussed in at least three conferences: the Asian Relations Conference held in New Delhi on April 1947, the Baguio Conference in the Philippines on May 1950 and the Colombo Powers Conference held in Sri Lanka in April 1954.
Then in 1983, the international conference held by Indian Minister of External Affairs P.V. Narasimha Rao in New Delhi, the foreign ministers of the inner seven countries adopted the Declaration on South Asian Association Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and formally launched the Integrated Programme of Action (IPA) initially in five agreed areas of cooperation namely-
Agriculture,
Rural Development,
Telecommunications,
Meteorology,
Health and Population Activities.

SAARC members:

Observer Countries: States with observer status include Australia, China, the European Union, Iran, Japan, Mauritius, Myanmar, South Korea and the United States.

Objectives

The objectives of the association as defined in the SAARC Charter are:
To promote and strengthen collective self-reliance among the countries of South Asia,
To contribute to develop mutual trust, understanding and appreciation of one another’s problem,
To promote active collaboration and mutual assistance in the economic, social, cultural, technical and∙ scientific fields,
To strengthen cooperation with other developing countries,
To strengthen cooperation among themselves in international forums on matters of common interest,
To cooperate with international and regional organizations with similar aims and purposes.

India’s standing:

India being the world’s 3rd & 7th largest Economy of world in GPP(PPP) & GDP(Nominal) terms respectively as well as world’s fastest growing major Economy, plays an important role in functioning of SAARC. India makes up over 70% of the area and population among these eight nations.
SAARC Successes
Over the last 25 years, despite extremely difficult political circumstances, SAARC has managed to create situations, institutions and forums where Heads of State have had to shake each other’s’ hands and go into talks together.
SAARC has tackled important topics for the region such as a social charter, development agreements and even the sensitive subject of fighting terrorism.
The food and development banks, Agreement on Transportation, Energy are important steps in the right direction.
Exchanges in the areas of civil society and science have become one of the pillars of South Asian integration efforts.
SAARC Failures
In its 30 years of existence, SAARC failed to hold 11 annual summits for political reasons, both at the bilateral and internal levels. The last summit in Kathmandu was held after a gap of three years.
The intra-regional trade of SAARC amounted to $40.5 billion in 2011, which constitutes just 5% of member countries’ trade. The number pales into insignificance when compared with the volume of trilateral trade between member-countries of NAFTA, the North American Free Trade Agreement, (the US, Canada and Mexico) which hit $1 trillion in 2011.
While different regions of the world have progressed even to monetary union, SAARC has failed to even come up with a free trade agreement.

Even in the Kathmandu Summit 2014, there were three connectivity agreements on road, rail and energy, to be endorsed by the eight SAARC leaders. Only one of these – on energy – has been signed.

BIMSTEC

The Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) is a regional multilateral organisation.
Its members lie in the littoral and adjacent areas of the Bay of Bengal constituting a contiguous regional unity.
Out of the 7 members,
Five are from South Asia –Bangladesh, Bhutan,India,Nepal,Sri Lanka
Two are from Southeast Asia –Myanmar,Thailand
BIMSTEC not only connects South and Southeast Asia, but also the ecologies of the Great Himalayas and the Bay of Bengal.
It mainly aims to create an enabling environment for rapid economic development; accelerate social progress; and promote collaboration on matters of common interest in the region.

Genesis of BIMSTEC

This sub-regional organization came into being in 1997 through the Bangkok Declaration.
Initially, it was formed with four Member States with the acronym ‘BIST-EC’ (Bangladesh, India, Sri-Lanka and Thailand Economic Cooperation).
It became renamed ‘BIMST-EC’ in 1997, following the inclusion of Myanmar.
With the admission of Nepal and Bhutan in 2004, the name of the grouping was changed to ‘Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation’ (BIMSTEC).

Objectives

Creating an enabling environment for the rapid economic development of the sub-region.
Encouraging the spirit of equality and partnership.
Promoting active collaboration and mutual assistance in the areas of common interests of the member countries
Accelerating support for each other in the fields of education, science, and technology, etc.

Principles of BIMSTEC

Sovereign Equality
Territorial Integrity
Political Independence
No-interference in Internal Affairs
Peaceful Co- existence
Mutual Benefit
Constitute an addition to and not be a substitute for bilateral, regional or multilateral cooperation involving the Member States

Significance for India

Allows India to pursue three core policies:
Neighborhood First – primacy to the country’s immediate periphery;
Act East – connect India with Southeast Asia; and
Economic development of India’s north-eastern states – by linking them to the Bay of Bengal region via Bangladesh and Myanmar.
Allows India to counter China’s creeping influence in countries around the Bay of Bengal due to the spread of its Belt and Road Initiative.
A new platform for India to engage with its neighbours with South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) becoming dysfunctional because of differences between India and Pakistan.
Since the BIMSTEC region is notable for its diversity, the member states need to build on the regional synergies and work towards utilising the available resources in the most optimal manner.

This would help build a stronger and a more dynamic BIMSTEC.

WTO(world trade organization)

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only global international organization dealing with the rules of trade between nations.The WTO’s goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business.

Geneva, Switzerland, where the WTO headquarters is located,

History of WTO

The WTO started functioning on 1 January 1995, but its trading system is half a century older. Since 1948, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) had given the rules for the system. (The second WTO ministerial meeting, held in Geneva in May 1998, included a celebration of the 50th anniversary of the system.)
It did not take long for the General Agreement to give birth to an unofficial, extant international organization, also known informally as GATT.
Over the years, GATT evolved through several rounds of negotiations.
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) had its last round in 1986 and it lasted till 1994.
This was known as the Uruguay Round and it led to the formulation of the World Trade Organization (WTO).
While GATT mostly dealt with trade in goods, the WTO and its agreements could not only cover goods but also trade in services and other intellectual properties like trade creations, designs, and inventions.
The WTO has 164 members and 23 observer governments. Afghanistan became the 164th member in July 2016. In addition to states, the European Union, and each EU country in its own right is a member.

Functions of the World Trade Organization (WTO)

The WTO’s overriding objective is to help trade flow smoothly, freely, fairly, and predictably. It does this by:
Administering WTO trade agreements
Conducting forum for trade negotiations
Handling trade disputes
Monitoring national trade policies
Providing technical assistance and training for developing countries
Cooperation with other international organizations

Doha Declaration

The Doha Declaration is the November 2001 declaration that came out of the 4th Ministerial Conference of the WTO, that took place in Doha, Qatar.

This declaration gives the mandate for negotiations on an array of topics including issues concerning the implementation of the previous agreements.
This is called the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health.
There were disagreements between developed and developing countries.
The major bones of contention were agriculture, non-tariff trade barriers, industrial tariffs, services, and trade remedies.
The Bali Ministerial Declaration was achieved in 2013 which is the first agreement under the Doha Round, and also the first unanimous agreement under WTO.

Dispute Settlement of the World Trade Organization

WTO is an international body that also deals in Dispute Settlements.
The member country will approach the WTO’s dispute settlement body when a country fails to comply with WTO rules.
All the members are encouraged to settle the disputes through consultation or a panel if the consultation fails.
The constituted panel will circulate the verdict of the dispute settlement amongst WTO members who can decide to reject the ruling.
If the ruling is approved, the member country that violated the rules must change rules in line with the WTO Agreement.
In the case of failure to do so, the complaining country and the violating country may determine a mutually-acceptable compensation, failing which, the complaining country may retaliate suitably.

WTO and INDIA

India has been a member of the WTO since January 1995 and also had been a member of the WTO’s forerunner General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) since July 1948. As a developing country, India has played a significant role in the proceedings of the WTO, especially in voicing its own concerns and also of the entire developing world.
In the Doha WTO conference that took place in 2001, India emerged as the most outspoken of advocates for the developing bloc. The meeting was declared a success since the delegates of 142 countries agreed to a new round of trade talks, including topics such as environment, competition and investment.
There are many implications for the Indian economy as a result of the many agreements signed as part of the WTO. They are discussed below:
Reduction of Tariff and Non-Tariff Barriers
The agreement proposes an overall reduction of tariffs on manufactured products and the phasing out of the quantitative restrictions over a period of time. The important implication is that the firms that have a competitive advantage would be able to survive in the long run.
Trade-Related Investment Measures (TRIMS)
This agreement forbids the host country to discriminate against investments from abroad vis-a-vis domestic investment i.e. agreement requires investment to be freely allowed by nations.
Trade-Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)
Intellectual property rights seek to protect and provide legal recognition to the creator of the intangible illegal use of his creation. It includes patents, copyrights, geographical indications, trademarks, industrial circuits, designs and trade secrets. Since the law governing these aspects vary vastly across countries, the agreement stipulates a basic homogeneity of the law so that no infringement of rights occurred. This required some changes in the domestic laws of countries including India. As a result, India amended the Copyright Act, the Patents Act, and the Trade and Merchandise Act. The pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries are expected to be hit the hardest. Another impact on India is expected to be in the transfer of technology from abroad.
Agreement on Agriculture (AOA)
This agreement deals with giving market access, reducing export subsidies and government subsidies on agricultural products.
Agreement on Sanitary and Phyto-sanitary measures (SPM)
This deals with restricting exports of any country that do not comply with the international standards of germs/bacteria, etc. This is particularly related to industries such as marine food, food processing and other packed food.

Ban of Chinese Mobile Apps

Issues related to the Peace Clause
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Tariff Case
Fisheries Subsidies
Ban on Chinese Mobile Apps – China Claims Violation of WTO Rules
After India banned 59 mobile apps of China, they have claimed that India has violated World Trade Organization (WTO) rules. Even if China complains, WTO may most likely favour Indian decision due to the following reasons.
There is no bilateral agreement between India and China related to Smartphone apps.
As per the rules of the World Trade Organisation (WTO), a country can take action against companies if it is a threat to the national security and sovereignty of the nation.

China has blocked many global giants from entering its market on various pretexts.

NATO

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance between 30 European and North American countries. The organization implements the North Atlantic Treaty that was signed on 4 April 1949.

4 April 1949, Washington, D.C., United States

Headquarters: Brussels, Belgium

What is NATO?

NATO is an intergovernmental military alliance between 30 North American and European countries.
The organization implements the North Atlantic Treaty that was signed on 4 April 1949
NATO’s purpose is to guarantee the freedom and security of its members through political and military means.
POLITICAL – NATO promotes democratic valuesand enables members to consult and cooperate on defence and security-related issues to solve problems, build trust and, in the long run, prevent conflict.
MILITARY – NATO is committed to the peaceful resolution of disputes. If diplomatic efforts fail, it has the military power to undertake crisis-management operations. These are carried out under the collective defence clause of NATO’s founding treaty – Article 5 of the Washington Treaty or under a United Nations mandate, alone or in cooperation with other countries and international organizations.
NATO constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its independent member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party.
NATO’s Headquarters are located in Evere, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near Mons, Belgium.
Members: NATO has thirty members, mainly in Europe and North America.
The most recent member state to be added to NATO was North Macedonia on 27 March 2020
All decisions of NATO are taken by consensus
Meaning and importance of NATO ally status to India
The status does not automatically include a mutual defence pact with the United States but still confers a variety of military and financial advantages that otherwise are not obtainable to other non-NATO countries.
The amendment provides for increased US-India defence cooperation in the Indian Ocean in areas of humanitarian assistance, counter-terrorism, counter-piracy and maritime security

It is an intergovernmental military alliance

Established by Washington treaty.
Treaty that was signed on 4 April 1949.
Headquarters — Brussels, Belgium.
Headquarters of Allied Command Operations — Mons, Belgium.

Significance:

It constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its independent member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party.

Composition:

Since its founding, the admission of new member states has increased the alliance from the original 12 countries to 30. The most recent member state to be added to NATO was North Macedonia on 27 March 2020.

NATO membership is open to “any other European state in a position to further the principles of this Treaty and to contribute to the security of the North Atlantic area.”

Objectives:

Political – NATO promotes democratic values and enables members to consult and cooperate on defence and security-related issues to solve problems, build trust and, in the long run, prevent conflict.

Military – NATO is committed to the peaceful resolution of disputes. If diplomatic efforts fail, it has the military power to undertake crisis-management operations. These are carried out under the collective defence clause of NATO’s founding treaty – Article 5 of the Washington Treaty or under a United Nations mandate, alone or in cooperation with other countries and international organisations.

Why in News?

Greece rejects NATO mediation.

It says ‘de-escalation’ only after Turkey withdraws vessels from Greek waters.

What’s the issue?

Over recent weeks, tensions have been rising in the waters of the Eastern Mediterranean, prompted by what seems like a simple rivalry over energy resources.

Turkey has pursued an aggressive gas exploration effort, its research vessel heavily protected by warships of the Turkish Navy.
There have been encounters with rival Greek vessels and a third Nato country, France, has become involved, siding with the Greeks.
These tensions also highlight another shift in the region – the decline of US power.

Cause for latest tensions:

Tensions are mounting to breaking point between Turkey and Greece over Turkey’s drilling work near the Mediterranean island of Cyprus, which like Greece is an EU member country.

Turkey doesn’t recognize the divided island of Cyprus as a state and claims 44 per cent of Cyprus’ exclusive economic zone as its own.
Cyprus was split along ethnic lines in 1974 when Turkey invaded in the wake of a coup by supporters of union with Greece
The U.S. Senate has passed a legislative provision which was contained in the National Defense Authorization Act(NDAA)for the fiscal year 2020, that brings India at par with America’s NATO allies and countries like Israel and South Korea for increasing defence cooperation. Once it’s passed, India will be given a NATO ally like status.

International Economic organization:

Brelton woods twins

The Bretton Woods Conference, officially known as the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference, was a gathering of delegates from 44 nations that met from July 1 to 22, 1944 in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire (USA), to agree upon a series of new rules for international financial and monetary order after the conclusion of World War II.
The Bretton Woods twins refers to the two multilateral organizations created at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944.

They are:

The World BankIBRD
The International Monetary Fund

World Bank

With 189 member countries, the World Bank Group is a unique global partnership: five institutions working for sustainable solutions that reduce poverty and build shared prosperity in developing countries.
The Bank Group works with country governments, the private sector, civil society organizations, regional development banks, think tanks, and other international institutions on issues ranging from climate change, conflict, and food security to education, agriculture, finance, and trade.
A Group of Institutions
Together, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and International Development Association (IDA) form the World Bank, which provides financing, policy advice, and technical assistance to governments of developing countries. While the World Bank Group consists of five development institutions.
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) provides loans, credits, and grants.
International Development Association (IDA) provides low- or no-interest loans to low-income countries.
The International Finance Corporation (IFC) provides investment, advice, and asset management to companies and governments.
The Multilateral Guarantee Agency (MIGA) insures lenders and investors against political risk such as war.
The International Centre for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) settles investment-disputes between investors and countries.

All of these efforts support the Bank Group’s twin goals of ending extreme poverty by 2030 and boosting shared prosperity of the poorest 40% of the population in all countries.

World Bank Group and India

India was one of the forty-four original signatories to the agreements reached at Bretton Woods that established the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
It was also one of the founding members of the IFC in 1956 and the IDA in 1960. India later became a member of the MIGA in January 1994.
India is not a member of ICSID. India claimed ICSID Convention is not fair, convention’s rules for arbitration leaned towards the developed countries. In ICSID, the Chairman of the Centre is the Chairman of the World Bank. The Chairman appoints the arbitrators. If the arbitration award is not satisfactory, then the aggrieved party would appeal to a panel, which will also be constituted by the ICSID. There is no scope for a review of the award by an Indian court, even if the award is against public interest.
IBRD lending to India commenced in 1949 with a loan to the Indian railways; the first investment by the IFC in India took place in 1959, and by IDA in 1961 (a highway construction project).
India is currently classified as a “blend” country — defined as one in transition from lower middle-income to middle-income — and is creditworthy for lending from both IDA and IBRD.
India is the largest IBRD client of the World Bank. Between 2015 and 2018, the World Bank lent around $10.2 billion to India.
The World Bank Group (WBG) has approved a $25-30 billion commitment plan for India for the period 2019-22.
MIGA Performance Standards are environmental and social standards which help to structure and implement sustainable projects. For Indian market, one of the options is a breach of contract insurance which MIGA would offer to investors. In case the government doesn’t perform its obligation, under the contract arrangement, then MIGA can come and cover that risk for investment.

World Bank Reforms

Some critics have pointed out that the World Bank really caters to the agenda of World Capitalism in the garb of its “Structural Adjustment Programme’ (SAP) and continues to be dominated by rich countries. SAP is a set of “free market” economic policy reforms imposed on developing countries by the World Bank as a condition for receipt of loans.
It is argued SAP policies have increased the gap between rich and poor in both local and global terms.
The emerging new economic powers, particularly India and China, and some other Asian and Latin American countries of the world should be given due place and role..
The leadership succession debate should be used to create space for reflection on the purpose of the multilateral body, the substantive role it should play in the future, the need to strengthen inclusive multilateralism, and the actions needed to bolster the position of emerging economies and developing countries.
Failure of World Bank to adapt to the changing world order may see rising economies going their own way.
Establishment of the Asia Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) by China.
Such a development would signify the emergence of multi-polarity without multilateralism, and create a climate of conflicting interests and values among a diverse group of countries.
Deep reforms of the World Bank are necessary as part of rethinking the current world order, and giving rising powers and developing countries a meaningful voice in this institution.

International Monetary Fund(IMF)

The formation of the IMF was initiated in 1944 at the Bretton Woods Conference. IMF came into operation on 27th December 1945 and is today an international organization that consists of 189 member countries. Headquartered in Washington, D.C., IMF focuses on fostering global monetary cooperation, securing financial stability, facilitating and promoting international trade, employment, and economic growth around the world. The IMF is a specialized agency of the United Nations.
The breakdown of international monetary cooperation during the Great Depression led to the development of the IMF, which aimed at improving economic growth and reducing poverty around the world. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) was initially formed at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944. 45 government representatives were present at the Conference to discuss a framework for postwar international economic cooperation.
The IMF became operational from 27th December 1945 with 29 member countries that agreed to bound to this treaty. It began its financial operations on 1st March 1947. Currently, the IMF consists of 189 member countries.
The IMF is regarded as a key organisation of the international economic system which focuses on rebuilding the international capital along with maximizing the national economic sovereignty and human welfare.
Organizational Structure of International Monetary Fund (IMF)
The United Nations is the parent organization that handles the proper functioning and administration of the IMF. The IMF is headed by a Managing Director who is elected by the Executive Board for a 5-year term of office. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) consists of the Board of Governors, Ministerial Committees, and the Executive Board.

Objectives of the IMF

IMF was developed as an initiative to promote international monetary cooperation, enable international trade, achieve financial stability, stimulate high employment, diminish poverty in the world, and sustain economic growth. Initially, there were 29 countries with a goal of redoing the global payment system. Today, the organization has 189 members. The main objectives of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) are mentioned below:
To improve and promote global monetary cooperation of the world.
To secure financial stability by eliminating or minimizing the exchange rate stability.
To facilitate a balanced international trade.
To promote high employment through economic assistance and sustainable economic growth.
To reduce poverty around the world.

What are the functions of the IMF?

IMF mainly focuses on supervising the international monetary system along with providing credits to the member countries. The functions of the International Monetary Fund can be categorized into three types:
Regulatory functions: IMF functions as a regulatory body and as per the rules of the Articles of Agreement, it also focuses on administering a code of conduct for exchange rate policies and restrictions on payments for current account transactions.
Financial functions: IMF provides financial support and resources to the member countries to meet short term and medium term Balance of Payments (BOP) disequilibrium.
Consultative functions: IMF is a center for international cooperation for the member countries. It also acts as a source of counsel and technical assistance.

India & IMF

India is a founder member of the IMF. India’s Union Finance Minister is the Ex Officio Governor on the IMF’s Board of Governors. Each member country also has an alternate governor. The alternate governor for India is the Governor of the RBI. There is also an Executive Director for India who represents the country at the IMF.
India’s quota in the IMF is SDR 13,114.4 million that gives India a shareholding of 2.75%.
This makes India the eight largest quota holding country at the organization.
In 2000, India completed the repayment of all the loans it had taken from the IMF.
Now, India is a contributor to the IMF.
The emerging economies have gained more influence in the governance architecture of the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
The reforms were agreed upon by the then 188 members of the IMF in 2010, in the aftermath of the global financial meltdown.
More than six percent of the quota shares will shift to emerging and developing countries from the U.S. and European countries.
Which countries gained?
India’s voting rights increased to 2.6 percent from the current 2.3 percent, and China’s to six percent from 3.8. Russia and Brazil are the other two countries that gain from the reforms.

BREXIT

It is the abbreviation of “British Exit” from the European Union (EU). Brexit mirrors the term Grexit — a term which was coined and used by two Citigroup’s economists in February 2012 to refer to the possible exit of Greece from the EU.
Britain has had a troubled relationship with the EU since the beginning and has made various attempts in the past to break away from it.
On January 31, 2020, the United Kingdom left the European Union, the EU project will be taken forward by the 27 member states.

What is the European Union?

The EU is a political, trade and economic union founded in 1957. It evolved over decades and reached its present model in 1992.

There are 51 countries in Europe, out of which 28 countries have signed a treaty to become a part of the European Union. So, clearly, there are countries in Europe which are not part of the European Union.

The EU treaty provided for a European Parliament and European Council which consisted of representatives of the member states.

EU members account for 16 per cent of world imports and exports. It is the largest trading bloc in the world surpassing the US. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for advancing the causes of peace, reconciliation, democracy and human rights in Europe.

What is the Euro Area?

The Euro Area (EA) is a subset of the EU, which is a monetary union of 19 of the 28 countries which use the common currency, Euro.
Not all EU members use the Euro. Britain is an EU member, it is not part of the EA. It does not use the Euro and has retained its own currency, the Pound Sterling.

Why the ‘Leave EU’ campaign?

The Leave Campaign argues that Britain is losing out a big deal by staying in the EU.
It has to pay millions of pounds each week as a contribution to the European budget.
The extremely bureaucratic nature of the European parliament is hurting British exporters
Migration from the European Union into Britain (mainly PIGS economies) is creating an imbalance in the welfare schemes of the UK government.
But, those who oppose the campaign say that Britain is a net gainer if She stays in the EU.

About the referendum and the result

A referendum denotes voting in which everyone (or nearly everyone) of voting age can take part, normally giving a ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ answer to a question. The side which gets more than half of all votes cast is declared a winner.
Prime Minister David Cameron (Conservative Party) had promised to hold a referendum for Brexit if he won the 2015 general election. But, he led the campaign for ‘stay’ vote.
There were growing calls from many MPs of the Conservative Party and the UK Independence Party (UKIP), for a new referendum. (In 1975, Britain had voted to stay in the EU in a referendum).
A referendum was held on June 23, 2016, to decide whether Britain should exit or remain in the European Union.
Eligible voters: All British, Irish and Commonwealth citizens over 18 who are resident in the UK, along with UK nationals living abroad who have been on the electoral register in the UK in the past 15 years.
9% of voters favoured exit of Britain from the EU. It is the first time since the EU was founded in 1957 that a member country is leaving.
India is one of the top investors in the UK.
There are about 800 Indian-owned companies in the country employing roughly 110,000 people. (Eg: Jaguar Land Rover is owned by the Tata group)
Many of these firms made investments with the wider European market in mind.
Together, the UK and Europe account for over-a-quarter of the country’s IT exports, worth around $30bn.
The UK is the third-largest source of foreign direct investment in India and India’s largest G20 investor.
India is the third-largest source of FDI to the UK in terms of numbers of projects. India invests more in the UK than in the rest of Europe combined, emerging as the UK’s third-largest FDI investor.
The key sectors attracting Indian investment include healthcare, agritech, food, and drink.
In November 2015, Prime Minister Modi has said, ”As far as India is concerned, if there is an entry point for us to the EU, that is the UK.”
But, the UK is only India’s 12th largest trade partner, well behind other European countries such as Germany and Switzerland.
Interestingly, the UK is also among just seven in 25 top countries with which India enjoys a trade surplus.

Negative Impacts of the Brexit referendum on India

India will have to adjust to changing world order.
There may be foreign fund outflow and dollar rise.
Rupee may depreciate because of the double effect of foreign fund outflow and dollar rise.
This may increase petrol and diesel prices to an extent.
The government then may want to reduce additional excise duty imposed on fuel when it was on a downward trajectory. This may increase fiscal deficit unless revenue increased.
Prices of gold, electronic goods, among others may also increase.
Sensex and Nifty may tumble in the short-run.
The falling value of the pound could render several existing contracts loss-making.
The vote is also bad news for Indian outsourcers.
Foreign funds are likely to move out if the world outside thinks that investment in India is risky.
India’s Forex (currently a record 363 billion dollars) may diminish, particular if the currency is stored in Euros or Pound (this comes around 20% of total forex).
Brexit will have a negative impact on the $108 billion Indian IT sector in the short term.
Many Indian companies are listed on the London Stock Exchange and many have European headquarters in London. Brexit will take away this advantage.
Due to fall in the value of Pound sterling, Indian exports to the UK will suffer. Cheaper rupee will make Indian exports, including IT and ITeS, competitive. Indian import companies operating in the UK may also report a loss. Also, note that India is exporting more than what it is importing from Britain.

Positive Impacts of the Brexit referendum on India

There are many who think a weakening British currency might be good news.
India being more of an importing country than an exporting nation, the overall effect may turn out positive for India (if the dollar doesn’t appreciate much against rupee).
With lower pound value, Indian companies may be able to acquire many hi-tech assets.
As investors look around the world for safe havens in these turbulent times, India stands out both in terms of stability and of growth.
Brexit might give a boost to trade ties between India and the UK.
Britain will now be free to discuss a bilateral trade pact with India.
Due to the fall in the value of Pound sterling, those who import from the UK will gain. Indian export companies operating in the UK may also gain.
More Indian tourists can afford to visit Britain in the coming days as the currency value has fallen.
More Indian students can afford to study in Britain (for higher education) as the fees may seem cheaper.
Britain will need a steady inflow of talented labour, and India fits the bill perfectly due to its English-speaking population.
The fall in the prices of commodities like crude, which will help India save a lot on its import bill(every $1 drop in crude prices leads to roughly $1 billion savings in India’s oil import bill), reducing its trade and current account deficits (CAD).
Brexit would weaken global growth and lead to a meaningful decline in commodity prices. This is only going to enhance both the relative and absolute appeal of India.
Lower commodity prices will help the macro fundamentals: be it fiscal deficit, current account deficit or inflation, which will give the government more levers to pump up the investment cycle.

Brexit: What does it mean to Britain?

As per International Monetary Fund (IMF), a vote to exit the European Union in the referendum could leave Britain’s economy more than 5 per cent smaller by 2019 than if it stays in the 28-nation club.
Brexit could cause the country’s economy to be between 3.8 and 7.5 per cent smaller by 2030.
The pound expected to fall by around 20 per cent. This would mean that exports to the UK will suffer and imports from the UK will gain. Export companies operating in the UK will gain, while import companies will lose.
More foreign tourists will visit Britain in the coming days as the currency value has fallen.
More foreign students may prefer Britain for higher education as the fees may seem cheaper.
EU citizens in Britain and Brits living in other EU nations would have to update their immigration statuses.
Companies operating in both the UK and the EU would have to verify that they’re compliant with two sets of laws.
US President Obama has warned that it could take 10 years for Britain to negotiate a new trade deal with the US.

Brexit: What does it mean to the World?

Remittance from the UK to countries outside in terms of Pound will fetch lesser returns compared to the past.
Export dominated countries may be affected, whether exporting to the UK or not. If the UK is the major trading partner, the effect will be more.
The United States will bear the major brunt of a Brexit being the UK’s biggest trading partner.
A direct impact on Asian economies from Brexit is unlikely in the long term because as a percentage of GDP, exports to the UK is less than 2% for most economies.
But businesses in some major Asian economies – like India and Japan- will be hit.
Companies which have set up operations in the UK to gain access to EU markets will be affected.
BREXIT would likely allow any US Dollar strength to play out. This may cause other currencies to decline in value.

Is India ready to handle the Brexit?

The finance ministry said that the country has sufficient foreign exchange reserves to handle any impact.
RBI Governor then, Raghuram Rajan, said the central bank will infuse whatever liquidity is needed into the Indian market to keep it “well behaved”.
SEBI and stock exchanges have beefed up their surveillance mechanism to deal with any excessive volatility.
If exports to the UK are costly and imports are cheaper, India can think of utilizing the import-advantage by reversing the present trade scenario.
Once the dust settles, India may be seen to be a net gainer and inflows would continue to gravitate towards the Indian shores.
The Withdrawal Agreement was ratified by the UK Parliament on 23 January 2020, and by the European Parliament on 29 January, ensuring the UK leaves the EU on 31 January.UK left the EU at 11 p.m. GMT on 31 January 2020.

India is right to bet on a post-Brexit UK

India recently invited the United Kingdom (UK)’s Prime Minister Boris Johnson as chief guest for Republic Day 2021.
The visit will take place less than a month after the UK leaves the European Union — with or without a deal. The timing and occasion of the visit signals intent on both sides to develop a genuine partnership.
For decades, India-UK relations remained suboptimal because neither side was invested in truly understanding what the other valued. Some of the reasons that led to suboptimal relationship are
Kashmir Issue: In India, London’s motivations were — incorrectly — viewed as a former colonial power’s (UK) desire to weigh in on regional issues such as Kashmir by tilting towards Pakistan.
Post-Study Work Permit:London scrapped the post-study work permit for international students which led to a sharp drop in Indian student numbers between 2013-17, even as Chinese student numbers swelled based on special visa arrangements. This trend is now reversing as the post-study work permit has been reintroduced.
Afghan War: In UK, India’s lack of appreciation for the UK’s security concerns about troops in Afghanistan and radicalisation at home — both of which necessitate a security partnership with Pakistan — remained an irritant.
Military Purchases: India’s 2012 decision to purchase the French Dassault Rafale over the UK’s Eurofighter Typhoon fighter jet increased the estrangement
Brexit: London became busy in its domestic political turmoil and bureaucratic transitions. But whenever it did express interest to augment the relationship, New Delhi refused citing Brexit-related uncertainties.
Economic reasons: India has shied away from FTA given London’s emphasis on easy capital flows to and from India, which would hit Indian producers and retailers hard, without entertaining India’s reciprocal demand for liberal labour flows.
PM Johnson’s visit offers an opportunity for a reset.
Signing FTAs: Though difficult to achieve in the short-term, both countries have an incentive to explore the viability of a Free Trade Agreement (FTA). With both the economies under stress due to the pandemic, they have an incentive to revisit the irritants in signing the FTA.
Alternative to RCEP: Trade Agreement with UK offer an alternative as India seeks to reduce economic linkages with China. India’s decision to stay out of RCEP will help capitalise on British, and European, economic overtures
China Factor: In addition to economic incentives, London’s sharp downturn in relations with Beijing since the introduction of the draconian national security law in Hong Kong imparts strategic synergy to India-UK relations
UK’s Foreign Policy: The UK’s Integrated Review of Security, Defence, Development, and Foreign Policy 2021 has indicated that London must tilt towards the Indo-Pacific. The aim is to augment the UK’s presence in the Indian Ocean Region and work with powers such as India, Japan, and Australia, along with the EU and the US, to counter China.
Vaccine Development: India remains a top global exporter of raw materials for the pharmaceutical industry and will play an important role in the mass production of the Covid-19 vaccine.
Collaboration in sectors such as digital technology, the climate crisis, and vaccine development will also see a fillip if both countries sign FTA and collaborate together.

Way forward

Continuing project forward as 27: At the very core of the EU project is the idea that it is stronger together; that pooling resources and initiatives is the best way of achieving common goals. Brexit does not change this, and efforts must be taken to continue this project forward as 27.
Note for the partners: EU’s partners can be sure that EU will stay true to an ambitious, outward-looking agenda-be it on trade and investment, on climate action and digital, on connectivity, on security and counter-terrorism, on human rights and democracy, or on defence and foreign policy.

There are miles to go before this partnership realises its true potential, but it is set to become “poll-proof” as India bets on a post-Brexit UK.

ICC&ICJ&PCA

Introduction:

The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial body of the UN. Established in 1946 to replace the Permanent Court of International Justice, the ICJ mainly operates under the statute of its predecessor, which is included in the UN Charter.
It has two primary functions: to settle legal disputes submitted by States in accordance with established international laws, and to act as an advisory board on issues submitted to it by authorized international organizations.

Primary function of ICJ

The court’s primary function is to pass judgment upon disputes between sovereign states. Only states may be parties in cases before the court, and no state can be sued before the World Court unless it consents to such an action.
Under article 36 of the court’s statute, any state may consent to the court’s compulsory jurisdiction in advance by filing a declaration to that effect with the UN secretary-general.

International Court of Justice

It is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations (UN), with its seat at The Hague.
It was established in 1945 after half a century of international conflict in the form of two World Wars by the San Francisco Conference, which also created the UN.
All members of the UN are parties to the statute of the ICJ, and non-members may also become parties.
It is an autonomous body that is permanently in session, which consists of 15 judges of which no two of whom may be nationals of the same state.
These are elected to nine-year terms by majority votes in the UN General Assembly and the Security Council.
The judges, one-third of whom are elected every three years, are eligible for re-election.
The judges elect their own president and vice president, each of whom serve a three-year term, and can appoint administrative personnel as necessary.

Members of the Court:

The International Court of Justice is composed of 15 judges elected to nine-year terms of office by the United Nations General Assembly and the Security Council. These organs vote simultaneously but separately. In order to be elected, a candidate must receive an absolute majority of the votes in both bodies. In order to ensure a measure of continuity, one third of the Court is elected every three years. Judges are eligible for re-election.

ICJ Jurisdiction

The ICJ has two types of jurisdictions:

Contentious cases
1. ICJ, in accordance with international law, settles disputes of legal nature that are submitted to it by states.
2. Countries should apply and only then appear before the ICJ. International organisations, other authorities, and private individuals are not entitled to institute proceedings before the ICJ.
3. The Court can only deal with a dispute when the States concerned have recognized its jurisdiction.
4. The judgment is final, binding on the parties to the case and without an appeal.
Advisory opinions

1. The advisory procedure is available to five UN Organs, fifteen Specialized Agencies, and one Related Organisation.
2. Despite having no binding force, the Court’s advisory opinions nevertheless, carry great legal weight and moral authority and thus help in the development and clarification of international laws.

Limitations of ICJ

ICJ suffers from certain limitations, these are mainly structural, circumstantial and related to the material resources made available to the Court.

It has no jurisdiction to try individuals accused of war crimes or crimes against humanity. As it is not a criminal court, it does not have a prosecutor able to initiate proceedings.
The ICJ is not an apex court to which national courts can turn to. It is also not a court of last resort for people. It also does not act like an appeal court for international tribunals, however, it can make a ruling on the validity of the arbitration awards.
The ICJ cannot suo moto take up a case. It can only hear cases or disputes when requested to do so by States. It can also not investigate and rule on acts of States.
The ICJ only has jurisdiction based on consent, not compulsory jurisdiction.
It does not enjoy a full separation of powers, with permanent members of the Security Council being able to veto enforcement of cases, even those to which they consented to be bound.

Way Forward

The International Court of Justice is endowed with both a privileged institutional status and procedural instruments whose potential is frequently underestimated. It needs strengthening for the promotion and development of international peace.

Kulbhushan Jadhav Case

Kulbhushan Jadhav, an Indian naval officer, was arrested in March 2016 by Pakistani security forces in Balochistan province after he reportedly entered from Iran.

He was sentenced to death by a Pakistani military court on charges of espionage and terrorism in April 2017.
On May 9, 2018, ICJ stayed his death sentence after India had moved a petition before the UN body to seek justice for him, alleging violation of the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations by Pakistan.
In February 2019, India said Pakistan’s continued custody of Indian national Kulbhushan Jadhav without any consular access should be declared “unlawful” as it was an egregious violation of the Vienna Convention.
In 2019, the ICJ has directed Pakistan to review the conviction order of Kulbhushan Jadhav and, until then, put his death sentence on hold. ICJ also asked Islamabad to allow New Delhi consular access at the earliest. This is a major diplomatic and legal victory for India in the Jadhav case.
In 2019, Pakistan granted consular access for Jadhav in line with the ICJ ruling.

Key Highlights of Judgement

Pakistan Violated Vienna Convention: ICJ upheld that Islamabad had violated Article 36 of the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations, 1963, by not informing India about Jadhav’s arrest immediately after Pakistan Army had taken him into custody.
ICJ found that India had been deprived of the ‘right to communicate with and have access to Jadhav, to visit him in detention and to arrange for his legal representation’, which meant that Pakistan had breached obligations incumbent upon it under Article 36, paragraph 1 (a) and (c), of the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations.
The provisions of the 1963 Vienna Convention defines a framework for consular relations between countries.

ICC (international criminal court)

The International Criminal Court is an intergovernmental organization and international tribunal that sits in The Hague, Netherlands

International Criminal Court

The ICC is an intergovernmental organization and international tribunal that sits in The Hague, Netherlands.
It is the first and only permanent international court with jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for the international crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression.
It is intended to complement existing national judicial systems and it may therefore exercise its jurisdiction only when national courts are unwilling or unable to prosecute criminals.
The ICC lacks universal territorial jurisdiction, and may only investigate and prosecute crimes committed within member states, crimes committed by nationals of member states, or crimes in situations referred to the Court by the UNSC.

Composition and voting power:

The Court’s management oversight and legislative body, the Assembly of States Parties, consists of one representative from each state party.

Each state party has one vote and “every effort” has to be made to reach decisions by consensus. If consensus cannot be reached, decisions are made by vote. The Assembly is presided over by a president and two vice-presidents, who are elected by the members to three-year terms.

Jurisdiction:

The ICC has the jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for the international crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes.
The ICC is intended to complement existing national judicial systems and it may therefore only exercise its jurisdiction when certain conditions are met, such as when national courts are unwilling or unable to prosecute criminals or when the United Nations Security Councilor individual states refer situations to the Court.

Criticism:

It does not have the capacity to arrest suspects and depends on member states for their cooperation.
Critics of the Court argue that there are insufficient checks and balances on the authority of the ICC prosecutor and judges and insufficient protection against politicized prosecutions or other abuses.
The ICC has been accused of bias and as being a tool of Western imperialism, only punishing leaders from small, weak states while ignoring crimes committed by richer and more powerful states.

ICC cannot mount successful cases without state cooperation is problematic for several reasons. It means that the ICC acts inconsistently in its selection of cases, is prevented from taking on hard cases and loses legitimacy. It also gives the ICC less deterrent value, as potential perpetrators of war crimes know that they can avoid ICC judgment by taking over government and refusing to cooperate.

Difference between ICC & ICJ – at a glance

	INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE- ICJ	INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT – ICC
ESTABLISHMENT YEAR	1946	2002
RELATIONSHIP WITH U.N	Official court of U.N, commonly known as “World Court”.	Independent. Not governed by U.N. Can receive referrals from UNSC. Can initiate prosecution without UN action.
HEADQUARTERS	Peace Palace , Hague	Hague
JURISDICTION	U.N Member states. Can give advisory opinions to UN bodies. Cannot try individuals. Applies International Law	Individuals accused of international crimes. Uses International Law, as war crimes violate Geneva Convention.
TYPES OF CASES	Sovereignty, boundary disputes, maritime disputes, trade, natural resources, human rights, treaty violations, treaty interpretation, etc.	Genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, crimes of aggression.
DERIVES AUTHORITY FROM	States that ratify the U.N. Charter become parties to the ICJ Statute. Non-UN member states can also become parties to the ICJ by ratifying the ICJ Statute.	Rome Statute
APPEALS	ICJ decision is binding. UNSC can review if states do not comply.	Appeals Chamber, according to Rome Statute.
FUNDING	U.N funded	contribution from state parties to the Rome Statute; voluntary contributions from the U.N; voluntary contributions from

Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA):

The Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) is an intergovernmental organization located at The Hague in the Netherlands. It was the first permanent intergovernmental organization that provided a forum for the resolution of international disputes through arbitration and other peaceful means. The Permanent Court of Arbitration is the oldest global institution for the settlement of international disputes. The Court offers a wide range of services for the resolution of international disputes which the parties concerned have expressly agreed to submit for resolution under its auspices.

Origin of PCA: The Permanent Court of Arbitration was established by the First International Peace Conference held at The Hague, the Netherlands, in 1899.

Objective of PCA: The objective is “to facilitate the arbitration of international disputes”.

Structure of PCA:

It consists of an Administrative Council and an International Bureau.
The Court is not ‘permanent’ in nature; rather it is a Court selected from among a permanent panel of arbitrators.
Each member is eligible to nominate four persons who have competency in International law and who are of the highest moral reputation and have the ability to accept the duties of an arbitrator.
There are 225 arbitrators, appointed for a six-year term.
The Administrative Council is composed of diplomatic representatives of the contracting parties accredited to The Hague.
The President of the Council is the foreign minister of the Netherlands.
The administrative organ of the Court is the International Bureau which channels communication regarding meetings of the Court.
It serves as a registry and maintains archives.

What are the activities of the Permanent Court of Arbitration?

Arbitration has remained a rather infrequent means of resolving international disputes, though the UN Charter allows the states to settle their differences in tribunals other than the ICJ (International Court of Justice). The Court had a very limited role for several decades.
It adopted a new set of optimal rules in 1992 for giving greater flexibility and greater use of its resources for arbitrating disputes between the states. In 1993, it adopted certain new rules for arbitrating disputes between a state and a non-party state.
The PCA held its first Conference of Members in 1993 to discuss the future of the Court and established a Steering Committee. Under the new rule, the Court can arbitrate disputes both within and between inter-governmental organisations or between private corporations. The Court established a Financial Assistance Fund to help developing nations in meeting the costs incurred in bringing cases before it.

IOR-ARC :

head quarter :Ebene, Mauritius

The Indian Ocean Rim Association, formerly known as the Indian Ocean Rim Initiative and the Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation, is an international organisation consisting of 23 states bordering the Indian Ocean.
It was also called the Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation or the IOR–ARCfor short. It is a regional tripartite forum that gathers government representatives, academia and business leaders for encouraging cooperation and greater interaction between them.
IOR-ARC, a regional cooperation initiative of the Indian Ocean Rim countries, was established in Mauritius in March 1997 with the aim of promoting economic and technical cooperation. IOR-ARC is the only pan-Indian ocean grouping.
It brings together countries from three continents having different sizes, economic strengths, and a wide diversity of languages, cultures. It aims to create a platform for trade, socio-economic and cultural cooperation in the Indian Ocean rim area, which constitutes a population of about two billion people.
The Indian Ocean Rim is rich in strategic and precious minerals, metals and other natural resources, marine resources and energy, all of which can be sourced from Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ), continental shelves and the deep seabed.
Presently it has 19 members- Australia, Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Iran, Kenya, Malaysia, Madagascar, Mauritius, Mozambique, Oman, Seychelles, Singapore, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Thailand, UAE and Yemen. There are five Dialogue Partners namely China, Egypt, France, Japan and UK and two Observers namely, Indian Ocean Research Group (IORG) and Indian Ocean Tourism Organisation (IOTO), Oman.

The objectives of the Association are as follows:

To promote the sustained growth and balanced development of the region and of the Member States, and to create common ground for regional economic co-operation.
To focus on those areas of economic co-operation which provide maximum opportunities to develop shared interests and reap mutual benefits.
To explore all possibilities and avenues for trade liberalisation, to remove impediments to, and lower barriers towards, freer and enhanced flow of goods, services, investment, and technology within the region.
To encourage close interaction of trade and industry, academic institutions, scholars and the peoples of the Member States without any discrimination among Member States and without prejudice to obligations under other regional economic and trade co-operation arrangements.
To strengthen co-operation and dialogue among Member States in international fora on global economic issues, and where desirable to develop shared strategies and take common positions in the international fora on issues of mutual interest; and
To promote co-operation in development of human resources, particularly through closer linkages among training institutions, universities and other specialised institutions of the Member States.

Recently, the 19th Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) Council of Ministers (COM) Meeting was held in Abu Dhabi (UAE) under the theme of “Promoting a Shared Destiny and Path to Prosperity in the Indian Ocean”.

The United Arab Emirates (UAE)has assumed the position of Chair while Bangladesh will be Vice-Chair of the IORA for the period of 2019-2021.
South Africa was the chair for the period of 2017-2019.
The meeting was attended by IORA’s 22 Member States and nine Dialogue Partners.

Key Points

It is the only ministerial-level organization that focuses purely on the Indian Ocean region, bound together by growing economic and trade linkages and a shared interest in promoting prosperity, peace and stability.
In 2014, India hosted the first Indian Ocean Dialogue in Kochi, Kerala bringing together officials, academics and other strategic thinkers to discuss six broad themes – the geo-political contour of the Indian Ocean Region, maritime security challenges, strengthening regional institutions, information sharing, cooperation in disaster relief and management, and economic cooperation. The Kochi Consensus was adopted as its outcome document.
The Indian Ocean Dialogue (IOD) is a flagship initiative of IORA, with its origins in the 13th Council of Ministers meeting, held in November 2013 in Perth, Australia.
The sixth edition of IOD held on 13 December 2019 in New Delhi, India.

India’s Role

India continues to promote its official policy of “coordination, cooperation and partnership” in the regional maritime domain.
As coordinator to the priority area on disaster risk management, India has published guidelines for IORA. It has also urged partners to join the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure launched at the UN in September 2019.
India has been trying to emerge as the net provider of information in the IOR and in that direction it created the Information Fusion Centre located in Gurugram to assist member countries of IOR with real-time crisis information. Bangladesh, Mauritius, Maldives, Sri Lanka and Seychelles have been part of the information support structure of India.
Indian policy takes into consideration that IOR is not an India-run maritime domain and that is reflected in the government’s Security and Growth for All in the Region (SAGAR) programme, which aims to turn the region more inclusive.

Indian Ocean Rim Association

It was established in 1997and is a regional forum that seeks to build and expand understanding and mutually beneficial cooperation through a consensus-based, evolutionary and non-intrusive approach.
IORA has 22 member states, including Australia, Bangladesh, Comoros, India, Indonesia, Iran, Kenya, Madagascar, Malaysia, Maldives, Mauritius, Mozambique, Oman, Seychelles, Singapore, Somalia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Thailand, UAE, and Yemen.
Its Secretariat is based in Cyber City, Ebène, Mauritius.
It manages, coordinates, services and monitors the implementation of policy decisions, work programmes and projects adopted by the member states.
The association gains importance by the fact that the Indian Ocean carries half of the world’s container ships, one-third of the world’s bulk cargo traffic and two-thirds of the world’s oil shipments.

It is a lifeline of international trade and transport and the Indian ocean region is woven together by trade routes and commands control of major sea-lanes.

GCC&OIC

Organisation of Islamic Cooperation

The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) is the second largest intergovernmental organization after the United Nations with a membership of 57 states.
It is the collective voice of the Muslim world. It endeavors to safeguard and protect the interests of the Muslim world in the spirit of promoting international peace and harmony among various people of the world.
It was established upon a decision of the historical summit which took place in Rabat, Kingdom of Morocco on the 25th of September 1969.
Headquarters:Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
India is not a member of the OIC. However, India was invited as a guest of honour at 46th Session of the Council of Foreign Minister in 2019. 2019 is the 50th anniversary of OIC
India was invited by the host UAE as the “Guest of Honour” to attend the inaugural session of the OIC.
Even though Pakistan is a founding member of OIC. It absented itself during the session.

India’s address at OIC

At the summit, EAM has said that the fight is against terrorism and not a confrontation with any religion.
Without naming Pakistan, EAM said countries that provided shelter and funding to terrorists must be asked to dismantle the infrastructure of terrorist camps and stop providing funding and shelter to terror organizations based in their countries.
EAM also said that India is home to more than 185 million Muslims and they practice their respective beliefs and live in harmony with each other and with their non-Muslim brethren.
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC)
The OIC was formed in 1969 after a summit in Rabat, the Kingdom of Morocco on 25 September 1969 following the fire in Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.
The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) is among the largest inter-governmental organizations in the world.
The term intergovernmental organization (IGO) refers to an entity created by treaty, involving two or more nations, to work in good faith, on issues of common interest. In the absence of a treaty, an IGO does not exist in the legal sense.
It has 57 member states and 12 observers including the United Nations.
The Organization is the collective voice of the Muslim world. It endeavors to safeguard and protect the interests of the Muslim world in the spirit of promoting international peace and harmony among various people of the world.
The OIC members constitute more than one-fourth of the members of the United Nations, and nearly a quarter of humanity. It is an organization, that has a key role in shaping our world.

Significance of Invitation

The invitation to address the OIC can be seen as a major diplomatic victory as this is the first time that an Indian EAM was invited.
This can be seen as a part of India’s efforts to isolate Pakistan diplomatically.
In 1969, the invite to then union minister Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed was withdrawn at Pakistan’s insistence.
The official announcement by the UAE mentioned, that the invitation to India was extended in recognition of India’s global political stature as well as its time-honored and deep-rooted cultural and historical legacy and its important Islamic component.

Critical analysis of India attending OIC

India is a secular country, regardless of all the religions here, India does not prefer religion above nationality. Thus, the government must carefully consider its engagement with OIC.
The major basis of the OIC is of the Muslim Brotherhood and that Muslims everywhere can be clubbed together because of their faith. But, India does not support such a philosophy of a collective identity based on religion. Thus, if India decides to engage with OIC it should be on the basis of our national interest not on account of religion.
There are issues with respect to OIC’s stands on Kashmir in past. Recently, the OIC has condemned Indian Airforce strikes in Pakistan.
OIC stand on Kashmir
The 45th session had a very strong statement on Kashmir which “condemned” India and supported third-party intervention and self-determination. The statement also called the killing of terrorist Burhan Wani as “extra-judicial” and called the elections in Kashmir “farcical”.
In past decades, India had to spend lots of diplomatic capital to counter OIC’s stands at many international organizations. By attending it, we are validating the same organization.
Diplomatic capital refers to the trust, goodwill, and influence which a diplomat, or a state represented by its diplomats, has within international diplomacy.

Gulf Cooperation Council: head quarter : Riyad saudi arabia

GCC was established by an agreement concluded in 1981 among Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and UAE in view of their special relations, geographic proximity, similar political systems based on Islamic beliefs, joint destiny and common objectives.
The structure of the GCC consists of the Supreme Council (the highest authority), the Ministerial Council and the Secretariat General. The Secretariat is located in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

It is a political, economic, social, and regional organisation according to its charter.

Key Points

Indian Workers Want to Return to Arab Countries: India has asked the members of the GCC to facilitate the return of Indians who want to resume work with the relaxing of Covid-19-related restrictions. This can happen through sustainable travel bubble arrangements.
More than eight million Indianslive and work in West Asia, with a majority of them within the region covered by the GCC, which includes Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the UAE.
‘Transport Bubbles’ or ‘Air Travel Arrangements’ are temporary arrangements between two countries aimed at restarting commercial passenger services when regular international flights are suspended as a result of the Covid-19 pandemic. They are reciprocal in nature, meaning airlines from both countries enjoy similar benefits.
Cooperation: Both sides affirmed their commitment to reform multilateral institutions to reflect the realities of the 21st century and work together to address contemporary challenges such as the Covid-19 pandemic, climate change, sustainable development and terrorism.
The GCC welcomed India’s inclusion in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) as a non-permanent member from January 2021.
India assured continuing the flow of food, medicines and essential items to the Gulf region. Supply chains from India to the Gulf were not disrupted despite the lockdowns during the pandemic.

India’s Relations with the GCC

Political:The governments of the GCC members are India-friendly and Indian-friendly.

The Prime MInister of India has received the ‘Order of Zayed’, the highest civilian order of the UAE and the ‘King Hamad Order of the Renaissance’,the third-highest civilian order of Bahrain.

In the recent past, Saudi Arabia and the UAE havenot adopted hostile posture to India’s domestic developments such as removing the special status for Jammu & Kashmir under Article 370.

Economic: The GCC states are among India’s key suppliers of energy, and annual remittances from Indians in these countries are worth an estimated USD 4.8 billion.

The United Arab Emirates (UAE)and Saudi Arabia are India’s third and fourth-largest trading partners respectively and the total bilateral trade of the GCC countries with India for the year 2018-19 stood at USD 121.34 billion.
UAE also features in the top 10 sources of FDI inflows into India.

Security:

Both India and the GCC are members of the Financial Action Task Force (FATF).
Apart from the participation of Saudi Arabia, Oman, Kuwait, and others in India’s mega multilateral Milan Exercise, India also has bilateral exercises with most of them.
India and Oman hold annual bilateral exercises across all three wings of the armed forces (Army Exercise ‘Al Najah’, Air Force Exercise ‘Eastern Bridge’, Naval Exercise ‘Naseem al Bahr’). Further, Oman has provided the Indian Navy access to the Port of Duqm SEZ which is one of Indian Ocean’s largest deep-sea ports.
India has a bilateral naval (In-UAE BILAT) as well as an air force exercise (Desert Eagle-II) with the

Way Forward

The Gulf region has historical, political, economic, strategic and cultural significance for India. India-GCC Free Trade Agreement (FTA)can provide a boost to the relations.
Presently, India needs to safeguard its large economic, political and demographic stakes in the region.

G20

It is an informal group of 19 countries and the European Union, with representatives of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. The G20 membership comprises a mix of the world’s largest advanced and emerging economies, representing about two-thirds of the world’s population, 85% of global gross domestic product, 80% of global investment and over 75% of global trade.

Members: Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Republic of Korea, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Turkey, United Kingdom, United States, and the European Union.

Recently, at the G20(Group of Twenty) summit held virtually India called for a “New Global Index” for the post-Corona world .

New Global Index will be based on 4 pillars of

Talent,
Technology,
Transparency and
Trusteeship towards the planet.
This year’s summit was hosted by Saudi Arabia.

Key Points

Talent:

The focus must shift to multi-skilling and reskilling from capital and finance to create a vast human talent pool.
Indian initiatives such as the National Skill Development Mission (NSDM) which aims to create convergence across sectors and States in terms of skill training activities is already in direction of creating a vast human talent pool.
India’s New Education policy and programmes such as Pradhan Mantri Innovative Learning Program (DHRUV) are well aligned with this element.

Technology:

Ensuring that technology reaches all segments of the society and the value of new technologies should be measured by their benefit to humanity.
India suggested that as follow-up action and creation of a G20 virtual secretariat as a repository of documentation.
Digitial India and E-governance campaigns of India have increased people’s access to technology and other government services.

Transparency:

Reforms such as Right to Information and Ease of Doing Business promote transparency in governance in India.

Trusteeship:

The world should deal with the environment and nature as trustees rather than owners which would inspire us towards a holistic and healthy lifestyle.
Climate change must be fought not in silos but in anintegrated, comprehensive and holistic way.
A principle whose benchmark could be a per capita carbon footprint. A carbon footprint is the amount of greenhouse gases primarily carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere by a particular human activity.
Future meetings: Italy in 2021, Indonesia in 2022, India in 2023 and Brazil in 2024.

India’s Initiatives for Lowering Emissions

Infrastructure Push: India’s next-generation infrastructure push will not only be convenient and efficient, but will also contribute to a cleaner environment. E.g.: Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure, announced by the Prime Minister at the Hamburg G20 meet in 2017. This will act as a convening body that will pool best practices and resources from around the world for reshaping construction, transportation, energy, telecommunication and water, so that building in these core infrastructure sectors factors in natural catastrophes.
Producing Clean Energy: The India-France joint initiative of International Solar Alliance (ISA).
ISA will contribute to reducing carbon foot-print.
India will meet its goal of175 Giga Watts of renewable energy as a part of its climate commitments made under the paris climate deal well before the target of
Unn at Jyoti by Affordable LEDs for All (UJALA) and LED Street Lighting National Programme (SLNP)scheme has made LED lights popular, saving around 38 million tons of carbon dioxide emissions per year.
Ujjwala Scheme: Smoke-free kitchens have been provided to over 80 million households making it among the largest clean energy drives
Combat Desertification: The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)links development and environment to sustainable land management and aims to combat desertification and the ill-effects of drought.
Clean Air & Water: The National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) aims to decrease air pollution and Namami Gange program seeks to rejuvenate river Ganga and show the spirit of trusteeship in governance.

G-15

It is composed of countries from Latin America, Africa, and Asia with a common goal of enhanced growth and prosperity. The G15focuses on cooperation among developing countries in the areas of investment, trade, and technology.

Origin and Development

The Group of Fifteen (G-15) was set up by fifteen developing countries in 1989 at the ninth NAM Summit in Belgrade as an Action Group with the role of a catalyst for the Third World. The aim was to strengthen cooperation among the world’s leading developing nations and serve as a bridge to the (then) G-7 industrialised nations. The founder-members were Argentina, Chile, Peru, Brazil, Mexico, Jamaica and Venezuela from the Americas; Egypt, Algeria, Senegal, Nigeria and Zimbabwe from Africa; and India, Malaysia and Indonesia from Asia.

The first G-15 summit was held in Malaysia in 1990. In 1996, 11 members of the Group were among the 50 top exporters and importers in the world. Collectively these countries accounted for 10 per cent of the world’s merchandise exports and 10 per cent of the world’s imports. Their population size of a 1.8 billion accounts for almost 30 per cent of global population. Kenya was admitted as the 16th member at the Kuala Lumpur Summit in 1997. Sri Lanka joined in 1999; Iran and Columbia were admitted in 2000. The nomenclature of the Group, however, remains the same.

Objectives

The main objectives of the G-15 are “to harness the considerable potential for greater and mutually beneficial cooperation among developing countries; hold a review of the impact of the world economic situation and the state of international relations of developing countries; serve as a forum for regular consultations among developing countries with a view to coordinating policies and actions; identify and implement new and concrete schemes for South-South cooperation and mobilize wider support for them; pursue a more positive and productive North-South dialogue; and find new ways of dealing with problems in a cooperative, constructive and mutually supportive manner”.

Structure

The highest decision-making body of the G-15 is the annual Summit Meeting of its Head of State and Government (HOS/G) which is chaired by the country hosting the summit. To prepare for the annual summit and to coordinate the work of the Group, the Foreign Ministers of the G-15 countries usually meet twice every year. The daily work of the G-15 is supervised by the personal representatives of the HOS/G. These representatives meet at least four times a week, and are guided in their work by a troika comprising the current, previous and future chairmen of the Group. Ministers of Trade and Economics of the G-15 countries meet as and when deemed necessary. In addition, other ministers of the member-countries may meet when required.

The G-15 is assisted by a Technical Support Facility (TSF) based in Geneva. The TSF works under the guidance of the Chairman for the current year and is responsible for giving substantive and technical secretariat support for the activities of the Group and for promoting its objectives.

Private sector participation in G-15 activities is encouraged and actively promoted. The G-15 has established a Business Investment Forum (BIF) and a Committee on Investment, Trade and Technology (CITT) to facilitate interaction between the private and public sectors, and between the business communities of member-countries.

Activities

The G-15 strives to search for a more equitable economic order, and one of its major concerns is to bridge the growing disparities between the North and South. At various international fora, the G-15 has called upon the developed countries to be sensitive to the needs and interests of the developing countries while adopting macro-economic policies. The member-countries have sough the reform of major international financial and trade institutions so as to allow maximum benefits for the less-developed countries and to integrate the developing countries with the world economy. As for South-South cooperation, members have taken steps to increase inter-dependency in areas such as trade, transport, exchange of information and technology, technical expertise and infrastructural development, and, in general, to reduce their dependence on the North. Combating poverty and unemployment is another major area of cooperation for the G-15.

The G-15 has also launched a wide range of economic and technical cooperation projects. Each project is coordinated and funded by the initiating country. Projects have been established in fields such as environment, technology, education, trade and investment. G-15 projects are open to participation by all developing countries. Each of these projects is supported by a network of national focal points (NFPs) and monitored by the TSF.

G-77

G-77 is the largest intergovernmental organization of developing countries in the United Nations. India is a member of this group. Guyana took over the chairmanship of G-77 in 2020, succeeding Palestine which held the chairmanship in 2019.

Origin and Development

The G-77 (Group of 77) was founded on June 15, 1964, by 77 developing nations. They were the original signatories of the “Joint Declaration of the Seventy-Seven countries” declared at the end of the first session of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) in Geneva.
The first meeting of the G-77 was conducted at Algiers in 1967, where the historic Charter of Algiers was formally adopted. From that point on the G-77’s institutional structure evolved into a more permanent form. More chapters of the G-77 would be subsequently created in the following years. They were as follows:
Rome (FAO)
Vienna (UNIDO)
Paris (UNESCO)
Nairobi (UNEP)
G-24 in Washington D.C (IMF and World Bank)
Although the membership of the G-77 has increased to 133 countries, the original name has been retained because of its historic significance.

Objectives of the G-77

The main aims of the G-77 are to ensure that the developing world’s collective interests are safeguarded along with the enhancements of its negotiation capabilities in the wider United Nations system and other international forums. An additional aim is also to foster good relations between the developing world at large through economic and technical cooperation.

Structure of the G-77

The annual meeting of the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of member-countries is the most important decision-making body.
The various Chapters of the G-77 also have common features in terms of membership, decision-making, and certain operating methods. The Group’s work in each Chapter is coordinated by a chairman who acts as its spokesman. The chairmanship rotates on a regional basis (between Africa, Asia, and Latin America, and the Caribbean) and is held for one year in all the Chapters.

Activities of the G-77

The G-77 makes joint declarations and agreements related to particular issues along with sponsor and negotiator resolutions and decisions at global conferences and other meetings held under the auspices of the United Nationsdealing with international economic cooperation and development.
The initial years of the G-77 showed remarkable cohesion in policy and agreement. In the ensuing years, however, many disagreements began to emerge among the members of the group. One of the factors was that many of the developing countries began to develop at a faster pace compared to other members of the G-77. The emergence of regional and sub-regional integration groupings with their own specific goals and the end of the Cold War lessened the members’ interest in the groupings.
The result of this led to a decline in collective thinking on the policies required to improve the economic power of the developing countries along with the prospect of cooperation among member nations. In recent times, members have resorted to mere castigation of the countries and institutions dominated by those with the economic means to do so.
The problems facing the Third World countries in the era of globalization were discussed for the first time in the grouping. Other issues discussed included the role played by oil in the world economy, the growing disparity between the have’s and have-nots, international terrorism, and drug trafficking.

QUAD

The group is seen as a regional counterweight to China and has only met at the Joint or Assistant Secretary level since 2017. The latest meeting is seen as an upgrade by at least three levels.
The Ministers met to discuss cooperation on counter-terrorism, mentoring, assistance in disaster relief, airtime security, cooperation, development, finance and cybersecurity efforts etc.
The Quad countries were “resolute” in their view of the centrality of the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) in South East Asia.
The notion of ASEAN centrality broadly refers to the group of countries being at the centre of security and strategic frameworks for the Asia-Pacific region.

Quad

The Quadrilateral security dialogue or Quad was first mooted by the Japanese Prime Minister in 2007.
However, the idea couldn’t move ahead with Australia pulling out of it, apparently due to Chinese pressure.
In November 2017,India, the US, Australia and Japan gave shape to the long-pending “Quad” Coalition to develop a new strategy to keep the critical sea routes in the Indo-Pacific free of any influence (especially China).
Australia is worried about China’s growing interest in its land, infrastructure and politics and influence on its universities.
In the last decade, Japan believes that China has tried to bully it on several territorial issues.
China has border disputes with China is also blocking India’s path into the Nuclear Suppliers Group.
A weakened US sees the coalition as an opportunity to regain its influence in the Indo-Pacific region.
India has been hesitant about the Quad, in part because it does not want to isolate China and because it has had a history of staying clear of security alliances.
Members of the Quad, barring Australia, are currently engaged in the annual Malabar exercises – military exercises that started between India and the U.S. in 1994 and became trilateral (with Japan) in 2015.
India has not permitted Australia to participate in these exercises, concerned about what message it would send to China, which is wary of the exercise.

G-4 Meeting

The foreign ministers of G-4 grouping also held a meeting on the sidelines of the 74th session of the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA).
G-4is a group of four countries i.e. Brazil, Germany, India and Japan which support each other’s bids for permanent seats on the United Nations Security Council (UNSC)
The G-4 countries have decided to prepare for a fresh push for reforms at the UNGA in 2020 when the UN celebrates its 75th anniversary.
It was highlighted that there is a clear need for an enhanced role of developing countries and of major contributors to the United Nations to make the UNSC more legitimate, effective and representative.
This means that India and Brazil —the two developing countries in G-4 grouping — should get a place along with China, which is the only developing country in the UNSC.
The countries also put a focus on the role of the African continent in the Council.
G-4 said that the reforms-related decisions should be by a two-third majority in the UN General Assembly, which was enshrined in the 1998 resolution of the UNGA.
This is contrary to the position taken by China, which has always said that the decisions should be taken through “comprehensive consensus”.

World health organisation

World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations’ specialized agency for Health was founded in 1948. There are 194 Member States, 150 country offices, six regional offices.
It is an inter-governmental organization and works in collaboration with its member states usually through the Ministries of Health.
The WHO provides leadership on global health matters, shaping the health research agenda, setting norms and standards, articulating evidence-based policy options, providing technical support to countries and monitoring and assessing health trends.
Its headquarters are situated in Geneva, Switzerland.

It began functioning on April 7, 1948 – a date now being celebrated every year as World health day.

Objectives

To act as the directing and coordinating authority on international health work.
To establish and maintain effective collaboration with the United Nations, specialized agencies, governmental health administrations, professional groups and such other organizations as may be deemed appropriate.
To provide assistance to the Governments, upon request, in strengthening health services.
To promote cooperation among scientific and professional groups which contribute to the advancement of health.

During the first decade (1948-58), the WHO focused major attention on specific infectious diseases afflicting millions of people in the developing countries.

These included malaria, yaws, tuberculosis, and venereal diseases.
There was also a high priority for maternal and child health services, for environmental sanitation (especially safe water), and for standardization of drugs and vaccines.
In these years, WHO developed close working relationships with other UN agencies.

The period (1958 to 68) was much influenced by the national liberation in Africa of several former colonies, which became voting members of the Organization.

In 1960, the departure from the newly independent Democratic Republic of the Congo of nearly all foreign doctors created a massive emergency.
Working with the international Red Cross, WHO recruited 200 physicians and other health workers, and established a new fellowship program to enable scores of Congolese “medical assistants” to become fully qualified doctors.
In this period, fellowships for health-personnel development became a major WHO strategy in almost all countries.
WHO stimulated and even collaborated with the world chemical industry in the 1960sto develop new insecticides for fighting the vectors of onchocerciasis (“river blindness”) and for treating schistosomiasis.
Demonstration that tuberculosis could be effectively treated, without expensive sanatorium care, was a great breakthrough of the late 1950s.
Even the mundane standardization of the nomenclature of diseases and causes of death was an important contribution of WHO to international health communications.

The third decade (1968–78) of WHO included the great victory of eradicating smallpox from the earth.

In 1967, smallpox was still endemic in thirty-one countries, afflicting between 10 and 15 million people.
The work was done by teams of public health workers in all the countries affected, with WHO serving as leader, co-ordinator, and inspiration.
Millions of dollars were saved worldwide by this achievement, which overcame various national rivalries and suspicions.
The momentum of this great campaign added strength to another drive, for expanding the immunization of the world’s children against six once-ravaging diseases: diphtheria, tetanus, whooping cough, measles, poliomyelitis, and tuberculosis (with BCG vaccine).
After long hesitation for political reasons, in this period WHO finally entered the field of family planning by promoting worldwide research and development on human reproduction.
New efforts were also put into the control of malaria and leprosy.
WHO also promoted the training of auxiliary health personnel, such as China’s “barefoot doctors” and India’s traditional birth-attendants.
Such training was a sounder investment in most developing countries than preparing physicians for predominantly urban medical practice.

The fourth decade (1978–88) was ushered in by a great world conference of WHO and UNICEF in Alma Ata, a city of the Asiatic part of the Soviet Union.

In reaction against excessive attention to high-technology, the Alma Ata conference emphasized the great importance of primary health care, preventive and curative, as the best approach to national health policy.
This approach, stressing community participation, appropriate technology, and intersectoral collaboration, became the central pillar of world health policy.
Thirty years after its birth, 134 WHO member-states reaffirmed their commitment to equality, as embodied in the slogan “Health for All.”
The provisions of the safe drinking water and adequate excreta disposal for all were the objectives of the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (1981-90)proclaimed by the UN General Assembly in 1980 and supported by WHO.
In this period, every country was encouraged to develop a list of “essential drugs” for use in all public facilities, instead of the thousands of brand-name products sold in world markets.
The WHO’s condemnation of the promotion of artificial infant-formula productsin developing countries also attracted widespread attention.
The worldwide control ofinfantile diarrhea with oral rehydration therapy was another great advance, based on very simple principles.

Networks: A 1995 outbreak of Ebola virus in the Congo, which raged for three months unbeknownst to WHO, revealed a startling lack of global public health surveillance and notification systems.

So in 1997, WHO (in collaboration with Canada) rolled out the Global Public Health Intelligence Network (GPHIN), which took advantage of information on the Internet to function as an early warning system for potential epidemics.
The WHO supplemented this (GPHIN) in 2000 with the Global Outbreak Alert Response Network (GOARN) to analyze events once they were detected.
GOARN linked 120 networks and institutes with the data, laboratories, skills and experience to take action swiftly in a crisis.

WHO and India

India became a party to the WHO on 12 January 1948.
Regional office for South East Asia is located in New Delhi.
Smallpox
In 1967 the total number of smallpox cases recorded in India accounted for nearly 65% of all cases in the world. Of this 26,225 cases died, giving a grim picture of the relentless fight that lay ahead.
In 1967, the WHO launched the Intensified Smallpox Eradication Programme.
With a coordinated effort by Indian government with the World Health Organization (WHO), smallpox was eradicated in 1977.

Polio

India began the battle against the disease in response to the WHO’s 1988 Global Polio Eradication Initiativewith financial and technical help from World Bank.
Polio Campaign-2012:The Indian Government, in partnership with UNICEF, the World Health Organization (WHO), the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Rotary International and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention contributed to almost universal awareness of the need to vaccinate all children under five against polio.
As a result of these efforts, India was removed from the list of endemic countries in 2014.
It has also been instrumental in the country’s transition from hospital-based to community-based care and the resultant increase in health posts and centres focusing on primary care.
The WHO Country Cooperation Strategy – India (2012-2017)has been jointly developed by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoH&FW) and the WHO Country Office for India (WCO).

World Health Concerns & WHO

Air pollution and Climate Change
Nine out of ten people breathe polluted air every day. In 2019, air pollution is considered by the WHO as the greatest environmental risk to health.
Microscopic pollutants in the air can penetrate respiratory and circulatory systems, damaging the lungs, heart and brain, killing 7 million people prematurely every year from diseases such as cancer, stroke, heart and lung disease.
The primary cause of air pollution (burning fossil fuels) is also a major contributor to climate change, which impacts people’s health in different ways.
Between 2030 and 2050, climate change is expected to cause 250 000 additional deaths per year, from malnutrition, malaria, diarrhoea and heat stress.

Noncommunicable Diseases

Noncommunicable diseases, such as diabetes, cancer and heart disease, are collectively responsible for over 70% of all deaths worldwide, or 41 million people.
The rise of these diseases has been driven by five major risk factors: tobacco use, physical inactivity, the harmful use of alcohol, unhealthy diets and air pollution.
These risk factors also exacerbate mental health issues. The suicide is the second leading cause of death among 15-19 year-olds.

Global Influenza Pandemic

The WHO is constantly monitoring the circulation of influenza viruses to detect potential pandemic strains: 153 institutions in 114 countries are involved in global surveillance and response.

Fragile and Vulnerable Settings

More than 1.6 billion people (22% of the global population) live in places where protracted crises (through a combination of challenges such as drought, famine, conflict, and population displacement) and weak health services leave them without access to basic care.

Antimicrobial Resistance

It is the ability of bacteria, parasites, viruses and fungi to resist modern medicines which threatens to send us back to a time when we were unable to easily treat infections such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, gonorrhoea, and salmonellosis.
The inability to prevent infections could seriously compromise surgery and procedures such as chemotherapy.
In 2017, around 600 000 cases of tuberculosis were resistant to rifampicin – the most effective first-line drugs – and 82% of these people had multidrug-resistant tuberculosis.

Drug resistance is driven by the overuse of antimicrobials in people, but also in animals, especially those used for food production, as well as in the environment.

WHO is working with these sectors to implement a global action plan to tackle antimicrobial resistance by increasing awareness and knowledge, reducing infection, and encouraging prudent use of antimicrobials.

Ebola and Other High-Threat Pathogens

In 2018, the Democratic Republic of the Congo saw two separate Ebola outbreaks, both of which spread to cities of more than 1 million people. One of the affected provinces is also in an active conflict zone.
WHO’s R&D Blueprintidentifies diseases and pathogens that have the potential to cause a public health emergency but lack effective treatments and vaccines.
This watchlist for priority research and development includes Ebola, several other haemorrhagic fevers, Zika, Nipah, Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and disease X, which represents the need to prepare for an unknown pathogen that could cause a serious epidemic.

Weak Primary Health Care

Primary health care is usually the first point of contact people have with their health care system, and ideally should provide comprehensive, affordable, community-based care throughout life.
Yet many countries do not have adequate primary health care facilities. This neglect may be a lack of resources in low- or middle-income countries, but possibly also a focus in the past few decades on single disease programmes.

Vaccine Hesitancy

It is the reluctance or refusal to vaccinate despite the availability of vaccines – threatens to reverse progress made in tackling vaccine-preventable diseases.
Measles, for example, has seen a 30% increase in cases globally. The reasons for this rise are complex, and not all of these cases are due to vaccine hesitancy.
However, some countries that were close to eliminating the disease have seen a resurgence.
The WHO has identified complacency, inconvenience in accessing vaccines, and lack of confidenceas key reasons underlying hesitancy.

Dengue

It is a mosquito-borne disease that causes flu-like symptoms and can be lethal and kill up to 20% of those with severe dengue, has been a growing threat for decades.
A high number of cases occur in the rainy seasons of countries such as Bangladesh and India.
Now, the dengue season in these countries is lengthening significantly (in 2018, Bangladesh saw the highest number of deaths in almost two decades),
and the disease is spreading to less tropical and more temperate countries such as Nepal, that have not traditionally seen the disease.
WHO’s Dengue control strategy aims to reduce deaths by 50% by 2020.

HIV

The progress made against HIV has been enormous in terms of getting people tested, providing them with antiretrovirals (22 million are on treatment), and providing access to preventive measures such as a pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP, which is when people at risk of HIV take antiretrovirals to prevent infection).
Today, around 37 million worldwide live with HIV.
Reaching people like sex workers, people in prison, men who have sex with men, or transgender people is hugely challenging. Often these groups are excluded from health services.
A group increasingly affected by HIV are young girls and women (aged 15–24), who are particularly at high risk and account for 1 in 4 HIV infections in sub-Saharan Africa despite being only 10% of the population.
The WHO is working with countries to support the introduction of self-testing so that more people living with HIV know their status and can receive treatment (or preventive measures in the case of a negative test result).

WHOs’ Organisational Challenges

The WHO has been dependent on donor funds –mainly from rich countries and foundations like the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation – rather than through secured funding from countries.
As a result, currently 80% of WHO’s funding is tied to programs that donors choose. Work programs that are vital to WHO’s mandate remain under funded as they clash with the interests of big donors, especially of rich and developed countries.
Consequently WHO’s role as a leader in global health has been supplanted by other intergovernmental bodies such as the World Bank, and increasingly by big foundations.
The organisation’s efficacy has come under question, especially after its inadequate performance in containing West Africa’s ebola epidemic of 2014.
It was because of WHO’s insufficient funding, structuring, staffing and bureaucracy.

UNCLOS

UNCLOS is an acronym for the United Nations Convention for the Law of the Sea. The convention is also sometimes referred to as the Law of the Sea Convention or the Law of the Sea treaty. UNCLOS, as a law of the sea came into operation and became effective from 16^th November 1982.
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 1982, also known as Law of the Sea divides marine areas into five main zones namely- Internal Waters, Territorial Sea, Contiguous Zone, Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and the High Seas.
UNCLOS is the only international convention which stipulates a framework for state jurisdiction in maritime spaces. It provides a different legal status to different maritime zones.
It provides the backbone for offshore governance by coastal states and those navigating the oceans. It not only zones coastal states’ offshore areas but also provides specific guidance for states’ rights and responsibilities in the five concentric zones.

Maritime Zones

Baseline:

It is the low-water line along the coast as officially recognized by the coastal state.

Internal Waters:

Internal waters are waters on the landward sideof the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured.
Each coastal state has full sovereignty over its internal watersas like its land territory. Examples of internal waters include bays, ports, inlets, rivers and even lakes that are connected to the sea.
There is no right of innocent passage through internal waters.
The innocent passage refers to the passing through the waters which are not prejudicial to peace and security. However, the nations have the right to suspend the same.

Territorial Sea:

The territorial sea extends seaward up to 12 nautical miles (nm) from its baselines.
A nautical mile is based on the circumference of the earth and is equal to one minute of latitude. It is slightly more than a land measured mile (1 nautical mile = 1.1508 land miles or 1.85 km).
The coastal states have sovereignty and jurisdiction over the territorial sea. These rights extend not only on the surface but also to the seabed, subsoil, and even
But the coastal states’ rights are limited by the innocent passage through the territorial sea.

Contiguous Zone:

The contiguous zone extends seaward up to 24 nm from its baselines.
It is an intermediary zone between the territorial sea and the high seas.
The coastal state has the right to both prevent and punish infringement of fiscal, immigration, sanitary, and customs laws within its territory and territorial sea.
Unlike the territorial sea, the contiguous zone only gives jurisdiction to a state on the ocean’s surface and floor.It does not provide air and space rights.

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ):

Each coastal State may claim an EEZ beyond and adjacent to its territorial sea that extends seaward up to 200 nm from its baselines.
Within its EEZ, a coastal state has:
Sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring, exploiting, conserving and managing natural resources, whether living or nonliving, of the seabed and subsoil.
Rights to carry out activities like the production of energy from the water, currents and wind.
Unlike the territorial sea and the contiguous zone, the EEZ only allows for the above-mentioned resource rights.It does not give a coastal state the right to prohibit or limit freedom of navigation or overflight, subject to very limited exceptions.

High Seas:

The ocean surface and the water column beyond the EEZ are referred to as the high seas.
It is considered as “the common heritage of all mankind” and is beyond any national jurisdiction.
States can conduct activities in these areas as long as they are for peaceful purposes, such as transit, marine science, and undersea exploration.

IMO

IMO is the United Nations specialized agency with responsibility for the safety and security of shipping and the prevention of marine and atmospheric pollution by ships. Its main role is to create a regulatory framework for the shipping industry including ship design, construction, equipment, manning, operation and disposal. It supports United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. SDG 14 (Life below Water-conserving and sustainable use of the oceans, seas and marine resources) is central to IMO.

International Maritime Organization

The International Maritime Organization(IMO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN).
It is a global standard-setting authority with responsibility to improve the safety and security of international shipping and prevention of marine and atmospheric pollution by ships.
The IMO is not responsible for enforcing its policies. There is no enforcement mechanism to implement the policies of the IMO.
Its main role is to create a regulatory framework for the shipping industry that is fair and effective, universally adopted and universally implemented.
It is also involved in legal matters, including liability and compensation issues and the facilitation of international maritime traffic.
It was established by means of a Convention adopted under the auspices of the United Nations in Geneva on 17 March 1948 and met for the first time in January 1959.
It currently has 174 Member States and 3 associate members.

Headquarters of the International Maritime Organization, London.

Structure and Functions of the IMO

The IMO, like any other UN agency, is primarily a secretariat, which facilitates decision-making processes on all maritime matters through meetings of member states.
The binding instruments are brought in through the conventions — to which member states sign on to for compliance — as well as amendments to the same and related codes.
Structurally, maritime matters are dealt by the committees of the IMO — the Maritime Safety Committee (MSC), Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), Technical Cooperation Committee, Legal Committee and the Facilitation Committee.

Important Treaties/Conventions:

International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS)
International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification, and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW)
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL)
International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea
IMO’s treaty, International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, is regarded as the most crucial treaty regarding safety at sea. The first draft of it was adopted in 1914 following the sinking of the Titanic, before the creation of the IMO.

India’s Inadequate Presence and Interventions

India joined the IMO in
The IMO currently lists India as among the 10 states with the ‘largest interest in international seaborne trade’.
Recently, India’s acceded to the Hong Kong International Convention for the Safe and Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships a.k.a Hong Kong Convention, which will help in providing a boost to the ship- recycling industry in India.
The IMO adopted the Hong Kong Convention in It is aimed at ensuring that ships being recycled after reaching the end of their operational lives do not pose any unnecessary risks to human health, safety and the environment.
Hong Kong Convention 2009 is not yet in force.
However, India’s participation in the IMO to advance its national interests has been woefully inadequate.

The Dominance of Developed Nations

To ensure that their maritime interests are protected, the European countries move their proposals in unison and voting or support are given en bloc.

Permanent Representatives:

Prominent maritime nations have their permanent representatives at London (Headquarters) and are supported by a large contingent (of domain experts from their maritime administration, seafarers and industry associations) during the meetings.
They ensure that they have representation in every sub-committee, working group and even correspondence groups so that they are aware of the developments.
China, Japan, Singapore, Korea and a few others represent their interests through their permanent representative as well as ensuring that a large delegation takes part and intervenes in the meetings.

India Lagging Behind

India’s permanent representative post in the IMO has remained vacant for the last 25 years.
Representation at meetings is often through a skeletal delegation.
A review of IMO documents shows that the number of submissions made by India in the recent past has been few and not in proportion to India’s stakes in global shipping.
Recently, the IMO mandated that merchant ships should not burn fuel with Sulphur content more than 0.5% beginning January 1, 2020.

Significance of the Recent Decision

Previous Sulphur Limit: Before the ban, fuel had a comfortable sulphur content limit of 5%, which was applicable to most parts of the world.
Benefits of Low Limits:
Limiting SOx emissions from ships will improve air quality.
This will significantly reduce the amount of SOx emanating from ships and will have major health and environmental benefits for the world, particularly for populations living close to ports and coasts.
The decision is in sync with the SDG 14(Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development.)

Problems with Low Limits:

In the US, past mandates on sulphur limits had led to many technical problems.
There have been instances of ships having been stranded after fine particles separated out from the fuel, damaging equipment and clogging up devices.
Despite the industry gradually gearing up to introduce the new fuel, many industry professionals expressed concern that the new very-low-sulphur fuel would be incompatible with the engines and other vessel equipment.
This and other regulations are triggering massive technological, operational and structural changes.

India and Low Limits:

These regulations come at a price which will have to be borne to a large extent by developing countries such as
The sulphur cap, for instance, will reduce emissions and reduce the health impact on coastal populations but ship operational costs are going upsince the new fuel product is more expensive.
Refineries in India: As refineries including those in India struggle to meet the demand, freight costs have started moving up, with a cascading effect on retail prices.
Sulphur Oxides (SOx) emissions
The main type of “bunker” oil for ships is heavy fuel oil, derived as a residue from crude oil distillation. Crude oil contains sulphur which, following combustion in the engine, ends up in ship emissions.
Sulphur oxides (SOx) are known to be harmful to human health, causing respiratory symptom sand lung disease. In the atmosphere, SOx can lead to acid rain, which can harm crops, forests and aquatic species, and contributes to the acidification of the oceans.

Environment -Friendly Efforts of the IMO

The global sulphur cap is only one of the many environment-related regulations that have been shaking up the shipping industry.
The industry is generally risk-averse and slow to accept changes.
Sulphur Limit: IMO regulations to reduce sulphur oxides (SOx) emissions from ships first came into force in 2005, under the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL Convention). Since then, the limits on sulphur oxides have been progressively tightened.
Reduction of emission of harmful gases: Efforts are ongoing to reduce nitrogen oxides (NOx) and ozone-depleting gases.
Decarbonising shipping: IMO has announced an ambitious project to decarbonise shipping in order to reduce carbon emissions.

Significance

Reduction in emission of Sulphur oxide will improve air quality particularly for inhabitants living close to ports and coasts as Sulphur oxides are known to be harmful to human health. In the atmosphere, it can lead to acid rain, which can harm crops, forests and aquatic species, and contributes to the acidification of the oceans.
Demand for the liquefied Natural Gas will rise due to costly sulphur 2020 complaint fuel.
To avoid fuel ban, ships could dump pollutants at sea and install emission cheat systems.

MARPOL Convention

The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships ( also known as MARPOL Convention) is the main international convention covering prevention of pollution of the marine environment by ships from operational or accidental causes.
The MARPOL Convention was adopted in 1973 at IMO.
Annex VI to MARPOL Convention was adopted in 1997 to address air pollution from Ships (entered into force 19 May 2005).
Different Annex in the treaty deals with prevention of pollution by different sources.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

It is a specialized agency of the United Nations that leads international efforts to defeat hunger and improve nutrition and food security.
It was founded in October 1945 and is headquartered in Rome.
It maintains regional and field offices around the world, operating in over 130 countries.
It also conducts research, provides technical assistance to projects, operates educational and training programs, and collects data on agricultural output, production, and development.
Composed of 197 member states, the FAO is governed by a biennial conference representing each member country and the European Union, which elects a 49-member executive council.
The Director-General serves as the chief administrative officer.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

India and FAO

India has had a historic association with FAO.
Indian Civil Service Officer Dr Binay Ranjan Sen was the Director-General of FAO during 1956-1967.
The World Food Programme, which has won the Nobel Peace Prize 2020, was established during his time.
India’s proposals for the International Year of Pulses in 2016 and the International Year of Millets 2023 have also been endorsed by FAO

75th Anniversary of Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) on 16th October 2020.India has released a commemorative coin of Rs 75 denomination to mark the occasion.

It is a specialized agency of the United Nations that leads international efforts to defeat hunger.

Headquarters: Rome, Italy

Founded: 16 October 1945

Goal of FAO: Their goal is to achieve food security for all and make sure that people have regular access to enough high-quality food to lead active, healthy lives.

Important reports and Programmes

Global Report on Food Crises.
Every two years, FAO publishes the State of the World’s Forests.
FAO and the World Health Organization created the Codex Alimentarius Commission in 1961 to develop food standards, guidelines and texts.
In 1996, FAO organized the World Food Summit. The Summit concluded with the signing of the Rome Declaration, which established the goal of halving the number of people who suffer from hunger by the year 2015.
In 2004 the Right to Food Guidelines were adopted, offering guidance to states on how to implement their obligations on the right to food.
FAO created the International Plant Protection Convention or IPPC in 1952.
FAO is depositary of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, also called Plant Treaty, Seed Treaty or ITPGRFA, entered into force on 29 June 2004.
The Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS) Partnership Initiative was conceptualized in 2002 during World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa.

Role and Functions of Food & Agriculture Organisation (FAO)

Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) is a global organisation and its functions can be listed as follows:
Helping Governments and Development Agencies coordinate their activities which are targeted to develop and improve agriculture, fisheries, forestry and other water and land resources.
Conducting research and providing technical assistance to various projects related to improving agricultural output and development.
Conducting training and educational programs and also collecting and analyzing agricultural data to improve yield and production.
The FAO also brings out a number of publications/reports, some of which are, the State of the World, the Global Report on Food Crises, the State of Food and Agriculture, the State of the World’s Forests, etc.
Other functions include dealing with matters related to Food and Agriculture around the world. It also executes current and prospective activities of the Organisation including its Programme of Work and Budget, administrative matters and financial management of the Organisation and constitutional matters.

World Food Programme (WFP)

The World Food Programme (WFP)is the leading humanitarian organization saving lives and changing lives, delivering food assistance in emergencies and working with communities to improve nutrition and build resilience.
It was founded in 1961 by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)and United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) with its headquarters in Rome, Italy.
It is also a member of the United Nations Sustainable Development Group (UNSDG), a coalition of UN agencies and organizations aimed at fulfilling the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
The international community has committed to end hunger, achieve food security and improve nutrition by 2030.
The WFP assists 88 countries, and has assisted 97 million people (in 2019) which is the largest number since 2012.

Objectives

WFP focuses on emergency assistance as well as rehabilitation and development aid.
Two-thirds of its work is in conflict-affected countries, where people are three times more likely to be undernourished than elsewhere.
It works closely with the other two Rome-based UN agencies:
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO),which helps countries draw up policy and change legislation to support sustainable agriculture
The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD),which finances projects in poor rural areas.
To end hunger by protecting access to food.
Improving nutrition and achieving food security.
Supporting the SDG implementation and partnering for its results.

WFP’s Strategic Plan for 2017-2021

It was adopted just over a year after the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. It aligns the organization’s work to the 2030 Agenda’s global call to action, which prioritizes efforts to end poverty, hunger and inequality, encompassing humanitarian as well as development efforts.
The Strategic Plan is guided by the SDGs set forth in the 2030 Agenda, in particular SDG 2 on ending hunger and SDG 17 on revitalizing global partnerships for implementation of the SDGs.
It ushers in anew planning and operational structure, including the implementation of results-based country portfolios that will maximize WFP’s contribution to governments’ efforts towards achieving the SDGs.
Responding to emergencies and saving lives and livelihoods – either through direct assistance, or by strengthening country capacities – remains at the heart of WFP’s operations, especially as humanitarian needs become increasingly complex and protracted.
WFP will support countries in ensuring no one is left behind by continuing to build resilience for food security and nutrition and addressing the growing challenges posed by climate change and rising inequality.

Funding

The WFP has no independent source of funds, it is funded entirely by voluntary donations. Its principal donors are governments, but the organization also receives donations from the private sector and individuals.
Governments: governments are the principal source of funding for WFP; the organization receives no dues or portions of the UN assessed contributions. On average, over 60 governments underwrite the humanitarian and development projects of WFP
Corporates: Through corporate-giving programmes, individual companies make vital contributions to fighting hunger.
Donations from private and not-for-profit entities have included frontline support to several emergency operations; expertise to enhance WFP’s logistics and fundraising capacities; and critical cash for school feeding.
Individuals: Individual contributions can make a difference in the lives of the hungry. A personal donation can provide:
Emergency food rations during a crisis
Special food for hungry children in schools.
Food incentives to encourage poor families to send their girls to school.

Food as payment for people to rebuild schools, roads and other infrastructure in the wake of conflicts and natural disasters.

Share the Meal

ShareTheMeal is an initiative of the United Nations World Food Programme (WFP).
Donations from the ShareTheMeal app support various WFP operations ranging from resilience building and school feeding programmes to providing food assistance in emergencies.
The app was launched in 2015 and since then, it has helped provide aid to some of the largest food crises in the world including Yemen, Syria and Nigeria.

WFP and India

WFP has been working in India since 1963, with work transitioning from food distribution to technical assistance since the country achieved self-sufficiency in cereal production. The areas in which WFP mainly assists in India are:
Transforming the targeted public distribution system: WFP is working to improve the efficiency, accountability and transparency of India’s own subsidized food distribution system, which brings supplies of wheat, rice, sugar and kerosene oil to around 800 million poor people across the country.
Fortification of government distributed food: To boost the nutritional value of the Government’s Midday Meal school feeding programme, WFP is pioneering the multi-micronutrient fortification of school meals.
The pilot project saw rice fortified with iron, which was distributed in a single district, resulting in a 20 percent drop in anaemia.
It has also helped tackle malnutrition by fortifying food given to babies and young children in Kerala State.
Mapping and monitoring of food insecurity: WFP has used Vulnerability Analysis and Mapping softwares to identify India’s most food insecure areas, which allows policy and relief work to be targeted appropriately.
WFP is also supporting the government’s Poverty and Human Development Monitoring Agency in establishing a State-level Food Security Analysis Unit, working towards the goal of achieving Zero Hunger.

Report Released by WFP

Global Report on Food Crisis– The Global Report on Food Crises describes the scale of acute hunger in the world. It provides an analysis of the drivers that are contributing to food crises across the globe.
The report is produced by the Global Network against Food Crises, an international alliance working to address the root causes of extreme hunger.

Award Won

The WFP has been awarded with the Nobel Prize for Peace 2020for its efforts to combat hunger, bettering conditions for peace in conflict-affected areas and preventing the use of hunger as a weapon of war and conflict.

The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO)

SCO is a permanent intergovernmental international organisation.
It’s a Eurasian political, economic and military organisation aiming to maintain peace, security and stability in the region.
It was created in 2001.
The SCO Charter was signed in 2002, and entered into force in 2003.
It is a statutory document which outlines the organisation’s goals and principles, as well as its structure and core activities.
The SCO’s official languages are Russian and Chinese
The SCO, which has its headquarters in Beijing

The 20th Summitof the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)Council of Heads of State was held recently via Video Conferencing.
The Meeting was chairedby Russian President Vladimir Putin.

Key points

Significance of SCO Meet:20th Summit of SCO Heads of State is important as it brought President Xi Jinping of China and Mr. Modi together in the virtual format even as both sides are caught in the high tension confrontation in Eastern Ladakh along the Line of Actual Control (LAC).
This was the first SCO Summit held in Virtual Format and the third meeting that India participated after becoming a full member in 2017.
The Republic of Tajikistan assumed chairmanship of SCO for 2021-22.
India has proposed to set up a Special Working Group on Innovation and Startups and a Sub Group on Traditional Medicine within SCO.
The Prime Minister of India indirectly referred chinese infrastructure projects in Pakistan Occupied Kashmir and India China standoff at line of actual control and urged members of the SCO to respect “territorial integrity” and “sovereignty” of each other.
Connectivity: PM highlighted India’s role in supporting infrastructure and connectivity development projects in the SCO region. Examples:
Chabahar port,
The International North–South Transport Corridor (INSTC)is a multi-modal connectivity project to establish transport networks (ship, rail, and road route) for moving freight between India, Russia, Iran, Europe and Central Asia.
Responsible Global Governance:Bringing changes in global governance will be the focus of India as a non-permanent member of the United Nation (UN) Security Council. From 2021 India will take part in the UN Security Council as a non-permanent member.
Reformed Multilateralism:In the context of the fallout of the pandemic and the economic downturn, India sought support of the SCO members in attaining a reformed multilateralism.
Organised Crime: India highlighted the challenges posed by the smuggling of illegal weapons, drugs and money laundering.
Strengthening Cultural Heritage: The National Museum of India will hold an exhibition on the Buddhist heritage of the SCO countries and India will host a food festival reflecting the culinary traditions of the SCO region.

Genesis

Prior to the creation of SCO in 2001, Kazakhstan, China, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan were members of the Shanghai Five.
Shanghai Five (1996) emerged from a series of border demarcation and demilitarization talks which the four former Soviet republics held with China to ensure stability along the borders.
Following the accession of Uzbekistan to the organisation in 2001, the Shanghai Five was renamed the SCO.
India and Pakistan became members in 2017.

Membership

Kazakhstan
China
Kyrgyzstan
Russia
Tajikistan
Uzbekistan
India
Pakistan

Observer states

Afghanistan
Belarus
Iran
Mongolia

Dialogue Partner

Azerbaijan
Armenia
Cambodia
Nepal
Turkey
Sri Lanka

Objectives

Strengthening mutual trust and neighbourliness among the member states.
Promoting effective cooperation in -politics, trade & economy, research & technology and culture.
Enhancing ties in education, energy, transport, tourism, environmental protection, etc.
Maintain and ensure peace, security and stability in the region.
Establishment of a democratic, fair and rational new international political & economic order.

Guiding Principle – Based on Shanghai Spirit

Internal policy based on the principles of mutual trust, mutual benefit, equality, mutual consultations, respect for cultural diversity, and a desire for common development.
External policy in accordance with the principles of non-alignment, non-targeting any third country, and openness.

Structure of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation

Heads of State Council –The supreme SCO body which decides its internal functioning and its interaction with other States & international organisations, and considers international issues.
Heads of Government Council –Approves the budget, considers and decides upon issues related economic spheres of interaction within SCO.
Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs –Considers issues related to day-to-day activities.
Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS) –Established to combat terrorism, separatism and extremism.
SCO Secretariat –Based in Beijing to provide informational, analytical & organisational support.

Operations

Initially, the SCO focused on mutual intraregional efforts to curb terrorism, separatism and extremism in Central Asia.
In 2006, SCO’s agenda widened to include combatting international drug trafficking as a source of financing global.
In 2008, SCO actively participated in bringing back stability in Afghanistan.
At the same time, the SCO took up a variety of economic activities:
In 2003, SCO member states signed a 20-year Programme of Multilateral Trade and Economic Cooperation for the establishment of a free trade zone within the territory under the SCO member states.

Strengths of SCO

The SCO covers 40%of the global population, nearly 20% of the global GDP and 22% of the world’s land mass.
The SCO has a strategically important role in Asia due to its geographical significance – this enables it to control the Central Asia and limit the American influence in region.
SCO is seen as counterweight to the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation.

Challenges for SCO

The SCO security challenges includes combating terrorism, extremism and separatism;; drug and weapons trafficking, illegal immigration, etc.
Despite being geographically close, the rich diversity in member’s history, backgrounds, language, national interests and form of government, wealth and culture makes the SCO decision making challenging.

Importance for India

India’s membership of SCO can help in achieving regional integration, promote connectivity and stability across borders.

Security

India through RATS can improve its counterterrorism abilities by working toward intelligence sharing, law enforcement and developing best practices and technologies.
Through the SCO, India can also work on anti-drug trafficking and small arms proliferation.
Cooperation on common challenges of terrorism and radicalisation.

Energy

India being an energy deficient country with increasing demands for energy, SCO provides it with an opportunity to meet its energy requirements through regional diplomacy.
Talks on the construction of stalled pipelines like the TAPI (Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India) pipeline; IPI (Iran-Pakistan-India) pipeline can get a much needed push through the SCO.

Trade

SCO provides direct access to Central Asia – overcoming the main hindrance in flourishing of trade between India and Central Asia.
SCO acts as an alternative route to Central Asia.
Economic Ties – Central Asian countries provids India with a market for its IT, telecommunications, banking, finance and pharmaceutical industries.

Geopolitical

Central Asia is a part of India’s Extended Neighbourhood – SCO provides India an opportunity to pursue the “Connect Central Asian Policy”.
Helps India fulfil its aspiration of playing an active role in its extended neighbourhood as well as checking the ever growing influence of China in Eurasia.
Platform for India to simultaneously engage with its traditional friend Russia as well as its rivals, China and Pakistan.

Challenges of SCO Membership for India

Pakistan’s inclusion in SCO poses potential difficulties for India.
India’s ability to assert itself would be limited and it may have to play second fiddle since China and Russia are co-founders of SCO and its dominant powers.
India may also have to either dilute its growing partnership with the West or engage in a delicate balancing act – as SCO has traditionally adopted an anti-Western posture.

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

The IAEA is an international organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to inhibit its use for any military purpose, including nuclear weapons.
The IAEA has its headquarters in Vienna, Austria. It was established as an autonomous organisation on 29 July 1957.
Though established independently of the UN through its own international treaty, the IAEA reports to both the UN General Assembly and UN Security Council.
India became a member in 1957 itself.

Functions of IAEA

The IAEA serves as an intergovernmental forum for scientific and technical co-operation in the peaceful use of nuclear technology and nuclear power worldwide.
The programs of the IAEA encourage the development of the peaceful applications of nuclear energy, science and technology, provide international safeguards against misuse of nuclear technology and nuclear materials, and promote nuclear safety (including radiation protection) and nuclear security standards and their implementation.
Promoting and assisting the research, development and practical applications of peaceful uses of nuclear technologies.
Establishing and administering safety guards to ensure that such research/development, etc., by the IAEA is not used for military purposes.
Applying, under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)and other international treaties, mandatory comprehensive safeguards in non-nuclear-weapon states (NNWS) parties to such treaties.

Iran has granted IAEA inspectors access to one of two sites where undeclared nuclear activity may have taken place in the early 2000s.

What’s the issue?

Iran signed the nuclear deal in 2015 with the United States, Germany, France, Britain, China and Russia. Known as the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, or JCPOA, it allows Iran only to keep a stockpile of 202.8 kilograms (447 pounds).

However, as per IAEA reports, Iran continues to increase its stockpile of enriched uranium in violation of limitations set in the deal.

Why this oversight is necessary?

The suspected work on a uranium metal disk, which could be used as a nuclear weapon component, and on neutrons—which are used to trigger a nuclear implosion—point to Iranian work on a neutron initiator for a nuclear weapons test or nuclear weapons device.
Iran’s stockpile of enriched uranium has grown by around 50% since February to 1,572 kilograms. That puts Iran’s stockpile of the nuclear fuel far above the limit of 202.8 kilograms stipulated in the 2015 nuclear accord.
With 1,000 kilograms of low-enriched uranium, Iran would likely have enough material to fuel a single bomb once the material is further enriched, a process some experts believe could take as little as three months.

NSG(Nuclear supplier goal)

Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) is a group of nuclear supplier countries that seek to prevent nuclear proliferation by controlling the export of materials, equipment, and technology that can be used to manufacture nuclear weapons.

The NSG was formed in the wake of the nuclear tests conducted by India in May 1974 which proved that certain non-weapons nuclear technology could be used to develop nuclear weapons.

The group had its first meeting in November 1975. A series of meetings held in London produced agreements on export guidelines. Although initially there were only 7 countries as members, there are 48 participating governments as of 2017.
India is not one of them. The NSG guidelines require that importing states provide assurances to NSG members that proposed deals will not contribute to the creation of nuclear weapons. Certain eligibility needs to be fulfilled for a country to become a member of the NSG.

NSG and India

India is not a member of the Nuclear Suppliers Group. The main reason for this is said to be that India is not a party to the 1968 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. It was in May 2016 that India formally applied for the NSG membership but was denied the membership as a joint decision by the other countries.

Since 2008, India has been trying to be a member country of the Nuclear Suppliers Group and there are various reasons for India to constantly push the US for accepting their offer to join. Given below are the reasons how joining NSG will be beneficial for India:

It will provide the country with access to foreign-sourced nuclear material and equipment, reducing the risk faced by foreign nuclear industries in doing business with India.
Increasing the business of these nuclear materials will enable India to make better versions of nuclear breeders and export them to smaller countries, thereby increasing the economic growth of the country.
The Make In India program will also see a boost if India becomes a member of NSG because nuclear power production would increase.
It will also gain India an opportunity to initiate talks about the plutonium trade for its thorium program and gain massive domestic profits.
India aims to minimize the use of fossil fuels by 40 percent and use more natural and renewable resources of energy. This is possible if India gets access to nuclear raw materials and increases nuclear power generation.

Causes for NSG’s denial from accepting India as a Member

The Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) has been in constant denial of accepting India as a permanent member under the nuclear pact is because of various reasons. Given below are a list of causes that have led to India not being able to be a part of NSG, despite persistence:

China’s denial of offering membership to India is another major cause of India not being able to make it to the list of NSG members.
India has not signed the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) yet, which is essential for countries to sign to become a member of the NSG.
Another reason is China’s interest in getting Pakistan membership of the NSG, which is also an NPT non-signatory. If Pakistan becomes a member, then no source can stop India from becoming a member. This is the reason why both India and Pakistan are unable to become member countries of NSG, despite persistence.
Until and unless all the members do not agree with the decision, NSG is not liable to accept the invitation of any country to join NSG. All 48 members have not yet reached the consensus of letting India become an NSG member.

Functions of the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG)

Nuclear Suppliers Group is a nuclear export control regime formed by a group of nuclear supplier countries that seeks to prevent nuclear proliferation by keeping control of the equipment, export material, and technology used to manufacture nuclear weapons.

NSG had been formed by the seven countries in the year 1974. When they realized that the Non-Proliferation Treaty alone could not halt the spread of nuclear weapons, they decided to form a multilateral nuclear export control arrangement. Given below are the main functions of NSG:

Controlling the export of nuclear material, equipment, and technology.
Transfer of nuclear-related dual-use materials, software, and related technology.
Each member country must be informed about the supply, import, or export of any nuclear-based product.
NPT will not be the only body responsible for governing the export of nuclear products. It will be divided between NPT and NSG.

NPT

Year 2020 marked the 50^thanniversary of the entry-into-force of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), a legal instrument treated as the cornerstone of the global nuclear non-proliferation regime.

What is NPT?

The NPT is a multilateral treaty aimed at limiting the spread of nuclear weapons including three elements: (1) non-proliferation, (2) disarmament, and (3) peaceful use of nuclear energy. These elements constitute a “grand bargain” between the five nuclear weapon states and the non-nuclear weapon states.
The treaty was signed in 1968 and entered into force in 1970. Presently, it has 190 member states.

Implications:

States without nuclear weapons will not acquire them.
States with nuclear weapons will pursue disarmament.
All states can access nuclear technology for peaceful purposes, under safeguards.

Key provisions:

The Treaty defines nuclear weapon states (NWS) as those that had manufactured and detonated a nuclear explosive device prior to 1 January 1967. All the other states are therefore considered non-nuclear weapon states (NNWS).
The five nuclear weapon states are China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
The Treaty does not affect the right of state parties to develop, produce, and use nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.
The remaining four nations namely – India, Pakistan, Israel and North Korea have not signed the treaty and thus not a party to the treaty

Role of states:

Nuclear weapon states are not to transfer to any recipient whatsoever nuclear weapons and not to assist, encourage, or induce any NNWS to manufacture or otherwise acquire them.
Non-nuclear weapons states are not to receive nuclear weapons from any transferor, and are not to manufacture or acquire them.
NNWS must accept the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards on all nuclear materials on their territories or under their control.

India’s Stand on NPT

India is one of the only five countries that either did not sign the NPT or signed but withdrew,t hus becoming part of a list that includes Pakistan, Israel, North Korea, and South Sudan.
India always considered the NPT as discriminatory and had refused to sign it.
India has opposed the international treaties aimed at non-proliferation since they were selectively applicable to the non-nuclear powers and legitimised the monopoly of the five nuclear weapons powers.

Why India never signed the treaty?

As per the stance of the Indian Government, the treaty in its current form is unfair as it, virtually, states that the 5 victorious nations of World War II have the right to possess nuclear weapons while condemning the rest of the nations who don’t have the weapons, to be subservient to the whims and fancies of the nations who do. In short, the treaty divides the world into nuclear ‘haves’ and ‘have-nots’.
India’s traditional position has always been that either the five nations denuclearize or everyone has the same rights as those who possess them. Also escalation of tensions by one of its nuclear-armed neighbours i.e. China was the primary reason why India conducted its own nuclear tests in the first place. It is this same escalation by India that prompted Pakistan to conduct its own nuclear test in order to act as a deterrent to what is perceived as “India’s naked aggression.

Iran Nuclear deal

Iran agreed to rein in its nuclear programme in a 2015 deal struck with the US, UK, Russia, China, France and Germany.
Under the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPoA) Tehran agreed to significantly cut its stores of centrifuges, enriched uranium and heavy-water, all key components for nuclear weapons.
The JCPOA established the Joint Commission, with the negotiating parties all represented, to monitor implementation of the agreement.

MTCR

The Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) is a multilateral export control regime whose members have an informal political understanding to limit the proliferation of missiles and missile technology. India became a member of the MTCR in 2016.
The Missile Technology Control Regime was started in 1987 by the G-7 industrialized countries namely, the USA, UK, Canada, France, Germany, Japan, and Italy. It was started to check the proliferation of unmanned delivery systems for nuclear weapons (particularly systems that could carry a payload of 500 kg to a range of 300 km).
There are a total of 35 members of the Missile Technology Regime (MTCR). India is one of its members.

MTCR Objectives

It is not a legally binding treaty on the members. It is only an informal political understanding.
Currently, there are 35 members in the regime including India. China is not a member of the regime.
Every member is supposed to establish national export control policies for ballistic missiles, cruise missiles, unmanned aerial vehicles, space launch vehicles, drones, remotely piloted vehicles, sounding rockets, and underlying components and technologies.
Every member should look into the following five factors while deciding on a possible export of controlled items:
1. Whether the intended recipient is pursuing or has ambitions for acquiring weapons of mass destruction;
2. The capabilities and purposes of the intended recipient’s space and missile programs;
3. The potential contribution the transfer could make to the recipient’s development of delivery systems for weapons of mass destruction;
4. The credibility of the recipient’s stated purpose for the purchase; and
5. If the potential transfer conflicts with any multilateral treaty.

MTCR and India

India applied for a membership to the MTCR in June 2015. India was supported by the USA and France in its application. Given below are the benefits of the Missile Technology Control Regime:

India’s space program will get a fillip as ISRO will now have access to restricted high-end technologies for developing its cryogenic engines.
India’s arms exports will be enhanced as now, India can export BrahMos to Vietnam and other nations.
This will help India procure Israel’s Arrow II missile, which will help develop India’s ballistic missile system.
India can buy surveillance drones from the US.
This will be a boost to the ‘Make in India’ program.

Australian GROUP

Established in 1985 (after the use of chemical weapons by Iraq in 1984), the Australia Group (AG) is an informal group of countries (now joined by the European Commission) to help member countries identify those exports which need to be controlled, making sure that they do not contribute to the spread of chemical and biological weapons
Coordination of national export control measures assists Australia Group participants to fulfil their obligations under the Chemical Weapons Convention and the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention to the fullest extent possible.
The group, initially consisting of 15 members, held its first meeting in Brussels, Belgium, in September 1989. With the incorporation of Mexico on August 12, 2013, it now has 42 members, including all Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) members, the European Commission, all 28 member states of the European Union, Ukraine, and Argentina. The name comes from Australia’s initiative to create the group. Australia manages the secretariat.

Objectives of Australia Group

Chemical and Biological Weapons can have massive destructive effects and were initially used during the First World War, where soldiers were exposed to poisonous gases, creating thousands of casualties. Given below are the objectives of the Australia Group:

The participants of the group have to ensure that licensing measures are taken for the export of certain chemicals, biological agents, dual-use chemical and biological manufacturing and equipment.
The Group harmonizes the participating country’s national export licensing measures.
The Australia Group meetings are conducted to explore the scope of existing effectiveness regarding the export of chemical and biological weapons and equipment.
The Group and its participants encourage other countries to ensure that the industries in their countries do not support the spread of chemical and biological weapons.

India entered the Austria Group in the year 2018 with an aim to strengthen the security of the world by preventing the transfer and export of biological and chemical weapons.

Australia Group and India

In January 2018, India was admitted as a member of the Australia Group and the Ministry of External Affairs extended their gratitude for the same and ensured that this membership would help the world a more secure place to live in.
India is now a member of the three of the Non-Proliferation Regimes. It is a member country of the Australia Group, Wassenaar Arrangement, and Missile Technology Control Regime. The Nuclear Securities Group and Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty are yet to be signed by India.
Gaining participation in the Australia Group will help India ascertain their membership in the Nuclear Suppliers Group which India has been aiming to join for the past many years. This is because it would give more credibility to India as a country and enable them to attain a better economic status. India also has a flourishing Biotechnology industry and membership with Australia Group will help them in establishing a better future in this field. India’s association with the Group will prove to be a boon for the country.

Wassenar Agreement

The Wassenaar Arrangement is a body responsible to contribute to the security and stability at the regional and international level by promoting transparency and greater responsibility in the transfer of dual-use good and technologies and conventional arms. It is one among the International grouping responsible for the export and transfer of nuclear, biological and chemical weapons and equipment.
The Arrangement is seen as a successor to the former Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls (COCOM). COCOM was terminated by its members due to its drawbacks in export control methodology and ceased to exist in 1994.
The participant countries are responsible to ensure that the National policies for the transfer of any such product are carried out peacefully and does not harm any other Country or its citizens. A total of 42 countries are a member of this Arrangement and India is one of them.

Wassenaar Arrangement: Its Objectives & Members

The Wassenaar Arrangement was established in the year 1996. The founding document of the Wassenaar Arrangement is also known as Initial Elements. Certain important elements that contribute to the Wassenaar Arrangement’s Approach include Control Lists, Procedures for the General Information Exchange, Procedures for the exchange of Information of arms, meetings and administration, participation, Procedures for the Exchange of Information on Dual-Use Goods and Technology and confidentiality.

The Wassenaar Arrangement was introduced keeping in mind certain objectives. Given below are the objectives of the Wassenaar Arrangement:

It contributes to the National and International security and stability
It controls export in order to combat terrorism
It promotes transparency in the transfer of conventional arms and dual-use technologies and equipment
Reinforces the export control regimes for the delivery of weapons of mass destruction
It is not directed to any State or group of states

Wassenaar Arrangement and India

The Civil nuclear deal with the US resulted in India’s participation in various nuclear and biochemical deals. It was in 2017 that India became a member of the Wassenaar Arrangement. India’s membership in the Arrangement will help India address the demands of Indian space and defence sector.
The participation in the Wassenaar Arrangement has opened doors for India to become a member of the Nuclear Suppliers Group, which India has been persistently trying to join. High technology tie-ups will also see a boost with respect to the increased defence programmes. Also, becoming a member of the Wassenaar Arrangement may prove beneficial for India, since China is not one of the members of WA. India is now in the wake of joining the Nuclear Suppliers Group as it would uplift its position in the world in terms of nuclear power, technology and becoming a global power.

Hague code of conduct

The International Code of Conductagainst Ballistic Missile Proliferation, commonly called The Hague Code of Conduct (HCOC) is an intergovernmental organization whose members implement transparency and confidence-building measures related to missiles capable of delivering nuclear, chemical or biological weapons as well as related technology. As of November 2019, 140 nations are members of the HCOC.
The HCOC was foundedin 2002 as a practical step to control the spread of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) capable missiles while strengthening and gaining wider adherence to multilateral disarmament and non-proliferation mechanisms. The HCOC is intended to strengthen and augment the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR).

When was Hague Code of Conduct adopted?	25th November 2002
What does this Code support?	Non-Proliferation of Ballistic Missiles
What are Ballistic Missiles?	A missile with a high, arching trajectory, which is initially powered and guided but falls under gravity on to its target.
Is it unilateral or multilateral code?	A multilateral code of conduct
Does it ban ballistic missiles?	No, it does not. It only limits their production, testing and export.
Is India a part of the Hague Code of Conduct?	Yes, Indian joined this code in 2016
How many members are a part of HCoC?	143
Neighbours of India which are not part of HCoC?	Pakistan, Bhutan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, China

What is the main objective of the Hague Code of Conduct?

The main objective of the Hague Code of Conduct is to strengthen national and international security arrangements and to promote disarmament on an international basis.
In order to achieve this, all the participating countries try all possible measures to impose maximum restraint in the development, testing, and deployment of ballistic missiles that are capable of carrying weapons that might result in mass destruction.

UNESCO

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is an important programme under the United Nations.
UNESCO is a specialised agency of the United Nationsthat works for world peace through global cooperation in the fields of education, culture and the sciences.
It is also a member of the United Nations Sustainable Development Group (UNSDG),a coalition of UN agencies and organizations aimed at fulfilling the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
UNESCO’s Headquartersare located in Paris and the Organization has more than 50 field offices around the world.
It has 193 Members and 11 Associate Members(As of April 2020) and is governed by the General Conference and the Executive Board.

Objectives

UNESCO focuses on a set of objectives such as:
Attaining quality education for all and lifelong learning
Mobilizing science knowledge and policy for sustainable development
Addressing emerging social and ethical challenges
Fostering cultural diversity, intercultural dialogue and a culture of peace
Building inclusive knowledge societies through information and communication
Focuses on global priority areas – “Africa” and “Gender Equality”.

Areas of Specialization of UNESCO

Education Transforms Lives

Education transforms lives and is at the heart of UNESCO’s mission to build peace, eradicate poverty and drive sustainable development.
The Organization is the only United Nations agency with a mandate to cover all aspects of education.
It has been entrusted to lead the Global Education 2030 Agenda through Sustainable Development Goal – 4.
‘Education 2030 Framework for Action’ (Incheon Declaration)is the roadmap to achieve the global education 2030 agenda..
Its work encompasses educational development from pre-school to higher education and beyond.
Themes include global citizenship and sustainable development, human rights and gender equality, health and HIV and AIDS, as well as technical and vocational skills development.

Protecting Our Heritage and Fostering Creativity

It is becoming a fact that no development can be sustainable without a strong culture component.
UNESCO has adopted a three-pronged approach to make culture takes it rightful place in development strategies and processes:
Spearheads worldwide advocacy for culture and development.
Engages with the international community to set clear policies and legal frameworks
Works on the ground to support governments and local stakeholders to safeguard heritage, strengthen creative industries and encourage cultural pluralism.
Some important conventions and International treaties of UNESCO to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage:
The Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions (2005)
The Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (2003)
The Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity (2001)
The Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001)
The Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972)
The Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Traffic of Cultural Property (1970)

Science for a Sustainable Future

Science equips us to find solutions to today’s acute economic, social and environmental challenges and to achieving sustainable development and greener societies.
UNESCO works to assist countries to invest in Science, Technology and Innovation (STI), to develop national science policies, to reform their science systems and to build capacity to monitor and evaluate performance through STI indicators..
Also, UNESCO works with its member states to foster informed decisions about the use of science and technology, in particular in the field of bioethics.

Social and Human Sciences

UNESCO helps to enable people to create and use knowledge for just and inclusive societies, support them in understanding each other and working together to build lasting peace.
It promotes mutual understanding among member states through its intergovernmental Programme like Management of Social Transformations (MOST),its Youth Programme and the Culture of Peace and Non-Violence Programme which include initiatives for democracy and global citizenship, intercultural dialogue, peace-building.

Communication and Information

UNESCO advances freedom of expression and the safety of journalists, combats online hate speech, as well as disinformation and misinformation through awareness raising initiatives.
It also supports universal access to information and knowledge through promoting Open Solutions, including Open Educational Resources, access for marginalized people, and multilingualism in Cyberspace.

Global Priorities Of UNESCO – ‘Africa’ and ‘Gender Equality’

Africa
UNESCO is attentive to 54 African countries with a stronger and better-targeted strategy.
The adoption of the African Union Agenda 2063and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development paving the ground for the African Economic Community and the African Renaissance.
Gender Equality
UNESCO holds that women and men must enjoy equal opportunities, choices, capabilities, power and knowledge as equal citizens.
Equipping girls and boys, women and men with the knowledge, values, attitudes and skills to tackle gender disparities is a precondition to building a sustainable future for all.
Some important initiatives to achieve the objective of Gender equality are:
UNESCO Priority Gender Equality Action Plan
Gender Equality Tools
Gender Views
Gender-related UNESCO Chairs and Networks
UNESCO Prize for Girls’ and Women’s Education
UNESCO Youth Mobile

Some of the Important Initiatives of UNESCO

World Heritage Convention and List
World Heritage Convention -1972 links together the concepts of nature conservation and the preservation of cultural properties.
The Convention defines the kind of natural or cultural sites (World Heritage Sites) which can be considered for inscription on the World Heritage List.
The States Parties of convention are encouraged to integrate the protection of the cultural and natural heritage into regional planning programmes, set up staff and services at their sites, undertake scientific and technical conservation research.
It explains how the World Heritage Fund is to be used and managed.
Globally there are 1121 World Heritage sites in the 167 countries. Meanwhile, India has 38 World Heritage Sites that include 30 Cultural properties, 7 Natural properties and 1 mixed site
Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme
It is an intergovernmental scientific programme that aims to establish a scientific basis for enhancing the relationship between people and their environments.
It promotes innovative approaches to economic development that are socially and culturally appropriate and environmentally sustainable.
The World Network of Biosphere Reserves currently counts 701 sites in 124 countries all over the world, including 21 transboundary sites.
India has 18 Biosphere reserves out of which 11 have been recognized internationally under Man and Biosphere (MAB) program:
International Geoscience and Global Geoparks Programme (IGGP)
International Geoscience Programme (IGCP)harnesses the intellectual capacity of a worldwide network of geoscientists to lay the foundation for our planet’s future, focusing on responsible resource extraction, natural hazard resilience and preparedness, and adaptability in the era of a changing climate.
UNESCO Global Geoparks (UGGp)are laboratories for sustainable development which promote the recognition and management of Earth heritage, and the sustainability of local communities.
As of April 2019, there are 147 UNESCO Global Geoparks within 41 Member States, covering a total area of 288,000 km²
International Hydrological Programme (IHP)
The Intergovernmental Hydrological Programme (IHP) is the only intergovernmental programme of the United Nations system devoted to water research and management, and related education and capacity development
World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP)
The growing global water crisis threatens the security, stability and environmental sustainability of developing nations.
The programme focuses on assessing the developing situation of freshwater throughout the world. It also coordinates the work of 31 UN-Water members and partners in the World Water Development Report (WWDR).
International Basic Sciences Programme (IBSP)
It is an international multidisciplinary programme established by UNESCO Member States in order to reinforce intergovernmental cooperation in science to strengthen national capacities in the basic sciences and science education.

Important Reports of UNESCO

UNESCO Science Report
UNESCO Science Report maps Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) governance around the world on a regular basis. The report is published every five years, on 10 November, to mark World Science Day for Peace and Development.
Global Education Monitoring Report
Global Education Monitoring (GEM) Report carries out its assessment of progress towards the Sustainable Development Goal on education (SDG4) and its 10 targets, as well as other related education targets in the SDG agenda.
The report examines different accountability mechanisms that are used to hold governments, schools, teachers, parents, the international community, and the private sector accountable for inclusive, equitable and quality education.
McBride Report of 1980
The comprehensive report of the MacBride Commission is also named “Many Voices, One World”.
It analyzed communication problems in modern societies, particularly relating to mass media and news, consider the emergence of new technologies, and to suggest a kind of communication order (New World Information and Communication Order) to diminish these problems to further peace and human development
UNESCO State of the Education Report for India: Children With Disabilities
The 2019 report is the first edition of the annual report to be published by UNESCO in India.
It highlights accomplishments and challenges with regards to the right to education of children with disabilities (CWDs).
UNESCO’s State of the Education Report 2019 is expected to help the education system better respond to the learning needs of CWDs. This will enable significant progress towards our collective objective of leaving no one behind and provide to all children and youth equitable opportunities for quality learning.

UNESCO And INDIA

India is a founding member of UNESCO.
The National Commission in India that works with UNESCO (as mandated by UNESCO’s Constitution) is called the Indian National Commission for Cooperation with UNESCO (INCCU).
India has been a member of the UNESCO since its inception in 1946.
UNESCO constitution requires that each Member State should have a principle body that shall work with the Organization. Thus, in India, Indian National Commission for Cooperation with UNESCO (INCCU)was commissioned.
UNESCO has two Offices in India
The New Delhi cluster office for eleven countries in South and Central Asia (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Iran, Maldives, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka)
The MGIEP – the Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Education for Peace and Sustainable Development fully supported and funded by the Government of India.

UNESCO’s International Prizes and India

UNESCO-Madanjeet Singh Prize for the Promotion of Tolerance and Non-Violence
It is established through the generous donation of the UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador, Indian artist, writer and diplomat Mr Madanjeet Singh, the prize honors his lifelong commitment to the cause of peace and tolerance.
The creation of the Prize in 1995 marked the United Nations Year for Tolerance and the 125th anniversary of the birth of Mahatma Gandhi.
Since 1996, the Prize has been awarded every two years and, since 2002, it amounts to US $ 100,000.

The UNESCO Kalinga Prize for the Popularization of Science

It is an international distinction created by UNESCO in 1951 following a donation from Mr Bijoyanand Patnaik, Founder and President of the Kalinga Foundation Trust in India.

Important International Days Observed at UNESCO

UNEP

The United Nations Environment Programme is responsible for coordinating the UN’s environmental activities and assisting developing countries in having environmentally sound policies and practices.
The UNEP is an international environmental authority engaged in establishing a global environmental agenda and promoting the efficient implementation of the environmental dimension of the United Nations Sustainable Development Programme.

The rising pollution levels of the 1960s and 1970s prompted the international leadership to think about having laws and regulations in place for environmental concerns, along the likes of the International Labour Organisation (ILO), the world Health Organisation (WHO), etc.
These concerns were addressed at the 1972 United Nations Conference on Human Environment (also known as the Stockholm Conference). The Conference led to the adoption of the Stockholm Declaration (Declaration on the Human Environment).
The Conference also resulted in the formation of a management body for these concerns, which was later called the United Nations Environment Programme.
Headquartered in Nairobi, the UNEP is headed by an Executive Director.

United Nations Environment Programme

The UNEP is a leading global environmental authority established on 5th june 1972.
Functions: It sets the global environmental agenda, promotes the sustainable development within the United Nations system, and serves as an authoritative advocate for global environment protection.
Major Reports: Emission Gap Report, Global Environment Outlook, Frontiers, Invest into Healthy Planet.
Major Campaigns: Beat Pollution, UN75, World Environment Day, Wild for Life.
Headquarters: Nairobi, Kenya.

UNEP Objectives

The UNEP’s stated mission is to offer leadership and promote partnership in caring for the environment through informing, inspiring and enabling countries and peoples to enhance their quality of life without compromising that of future generations.

The UNEP has a few focus areas, in which they prioritise work. They are:

Climate change
Ecosystem management
Disasters and conflicts
Environmental governance
Resource efficiency
Chemicals and waste
Environment under review

UNEP Functions

The major functions of the UNEP are discussed below:

The UNEP engages in developing global conventions on the environment and related issues. It hosts the secretariats of various conventions such as:

- Minamata Convention
- Convention on Biological Diversity
- Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
- Basel Convention
- Stockholm Convention
- Rotterdam Convention
- Montreal Protocol
- Vienna Convention
- Convention on Migratory Species
- Tehran Convention
- Bamako Convention
- Carpathian Convention
- Climate & Clean Air Coalition (CCAC)

It promotes environmental science and related information.
It finances and implements developmental projects related to the environment.
It engages with national governments, NGOs, etc. in relation to environmental policy and implementation.
The UNEP also formulates treaties and guidelines in the domain of international trade in harmful chemicals, international waterways pollution and transboundary pollution of air.
It also awards and honours individuals as well as institutions that do stellar work in this field.

Major Programmes of the UNEP

Earth Hour
Clean up the World
Billion Tree Campaign
Seal the Deal
Pain for the Planet
Awareness and Preparedness for Emergencies at Local Level (APELL)
TUNZA
Faith for Earth

United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA)

The UNEP’s governing body is called the United Nations Environment Assembly, which is said to be the world’s highest decision making body on the environment.

It meets once in two years to establish priorities for international environmental policies and develop international environmental law.
Formed in 2012, it is headed by a Bureau and its President.
The Bureau comprises ten environment ministers of various countries who all hold two-year terms, based on geographical rotation.
Currently, it has 193 member states (all UN member countries).

UNEP and India

India has had a close relationship with the UNEP since the programme’s inception. There are many projects completed, as well as ongoing projects, of the UNEP in India.

The UNEP’s presence in India started in 2016 with an office at New Delhi.
The nodal agency for India’s interactions with the UNEP is the GOI’s Ministry for Environment, Forests and Climate Change.
The Permanent Representative of India to UNEP is India’s High Commissioner for Kenya.
India’s annual financial contribution to the UNEP is to the tune of USD 100,000.
The UNEP has recognised India’s initiatives in the environment sector.

- The UNEP awarded PM Narendra Modi with the ‘Champions of the Earth’ award along with French President Emmanuel Macron in the category ‘policy leadership’.
- This was in recognition of the, among others, the International Solar Alliance, initiated by India.

In 2019, India joined the Climate & Clean Air Coalition (CCAC), whose Secretariat is hosted by the UNEP.
India plans to work with CCAC nations on best practices and experiences for the effective implementation of the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP).

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)’s Emissions Gap Report 2020 has been published recently.
The annual report from UNEP measures the gap between anticipated emissions and levels consistent with the Paris Agreementgoals of limiting global warming this century to well below 2°C and pursuing 1.5°C.

Key Points

Analysis for the year 2019:
Record high Green House Gas(GHG) emissions:
Global GHG emissions continued to grow for the third consecutive year in 2019, reaching a record high of 4 Gigatonne carbon equivalent(GtCO2e) without including land use changes (LUC).
There is some indication that the growth in global GHG emissions is slowing.
However, GHG emissions are declining in Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development(OECD) economies and increasing in non-OECD economies.
Record carbon emission:
Fossil carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions (from fossil fuels and carbonates) dominate total GHG emissions.
Fossil CO2 emissions reached a record 0 GtCO2 in 2019.
Forest fires increasing GHG emissions:
Since 2010, global GHG emissions have grown 4% per year on average, with a more rapid increase of 2.6% in 2019 due to a large increase in vegetation forest fires.
G20 countries account for bulk of emissions:
Over the last decade, the top four emitters (China, the United States of America, EU27+UK and India)have contributed to 55% of the total GHG emissions without LUC.
The top seven emitters (including the Russian Federation, Japan and international transport) have contributed to 65%, with G20 members accounting for 78%.
The ranking of countries changes when considering per capita emissions.
On consumption-based emissions:
There is a general tendency that rich countries have higher consumption-based emissions(emissions allocated to the country where goods are purchased and consumed, rather than where they are produced) than territorial-based emissions, as they typically have cleaner production, relatively more services and more imports of primary and secondary products.
Both emission types have declined at similar rates.
Impact of the Pandemic:
Emissions Level: CO2 emissions could decrease by about 7% in 2020 compared with 2019 emission levels, with a smaller drop expected in GHG emissions as non-CO2 is likely to be less affected.
The resulting atmospheric concentrations of GHGs such as methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide(N2O) continued to increase in both 2019 and 2020.
Sector reporting the lowest dip in emission due to pandemic:
The biggest changes have occurred in transport, as restrictions were targeted to limit mobility, though reductions have also occurred in other sectors.
Issues and Possible Solutions:
The world is still heading for a temperature rise in excess of 3°C this century.
The levels of ambition in the Paris Agreement still must be roughly tripled for the 2°C pathway and increased at least fivefold for the 5°C Pathway.
Rise of 3°C in global temperatures could cause catastrophic weather-related events around the world.
UN Experts believe the way to avoid it is encourage green recovery for countries facing Covid-induced economic slumps.
A green recovery involves investment in zero emissions tech and infrastructure, reducing fossil fuel subsidies, stopping new coal plants, and promoting nature-based solutions, according to the UN.
Such actions could cut 25% of predicted emissions by 2030, and gives the planet a 66% chance of keeping warming below the 2°mark that the Paris pact had set as a long term goal
Recently, the United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP) Adaptation Gap Report 2020 estimated the annual cost of adaptation to the effects of climate change for developing countries to at least quadruple by 2050.
The current cost for these countries is in the range of USD 70 billion (Rs 5.1 lakh crore) and may rise to USD 140-300 billion in 2030and USD 280-500 billion in 2050.
Adaptation Cost:
It includes costs of planning, preparing for, facilitating and implementing adaptation measures.
The ever-increasing adaptation cost has also outpaced the growth in adaptation finance and that is the reason for a maintained Adaptation Finance gap.
Adaptation Finance: It refers to the flow of funds to developing countries to help them tide over the damages caused by weather events from climate change.
Adaptation Finance gap: It is the difference between Adaptation Cost and Adaptation Finance.
Adaptation costs, in actual terms, is higher in developed countries but the burden of adaptation is greater for developing countries in relation to their gross domestic product.
The developing countries, especially in Africa and Asia, which are least equipped to tackle climate change will also be the most impacted by it.

Global Challenges :

Rising Temperature: The world is heading for at least a 3°C temperature rise this century, according to current Paris Agreement Even if we limit global warming to well below 2°C, or even 1.5°C, the poor countries will suffer.
The Pandemic: The Covid-19 pandemic has impacted adaptation efforts but its effect is not yet quantified.
Other Challenges: Last year was not just marked by the pandemic but also by devastating natural calamities like floods, droughts, storms, forest fires and locust plagues impacting around 50 million lives globally.
Global Adaptation for Climate Change: Three-quarters of all the countries have adopted at least one climate change adaptation planning instrument and most developing countries are working on national adaptation plans.
Some of the Indian Initiatives to Fight Climate Change:
India has shifted from Bharat Stage-IV (BS-IV) to Bharat Stage-VI (BS-VI) emission norms from 1st April 2020 which was earlier to be adopted by 2024.

National Clean Air Programme (NCAP):

It was launched in January 2019.
It is a five-year action plan with a tentative target of 20-30% reduction in concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5 by 2024,with 2017 as the base year.
It has distributed more than360 million LED bulbs under the UJALA scheme, which has led to energy saving of about 47 billion units of electricity per year and reduction of 38 million tonnes of CO2 per year.

The Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission:

It was launched in 2009 with the primary aim of achieving grid parity by 2022 and with coal-based thermal power by 2030.
Aims to increase the share of solar energy in India’s energy mix.

National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC):

It was launched in 2008.
It aims at creating awareness among the representatives of the public, different agencies of the government, scientists, industry and the communities on the threat posed by climate change and the steps to counter it.

UNHCR

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees is a UN agency mandated to aid and protect refugees, forcibly displaced communities, and stateless people, and to assist in their voluntary repatriation, local integration or resettlement to a third country.

UNHCR, the UN Refugee Agency, is an international organisation working to saving lives, safeguarding the rights and providing a better future for refugees, forcibly displaced communities and stateless people.

The organisation’s target audience includes refugees, people who are forcibly displaced from their homes, asylum seekers, internally displaced persons and stateless people.
The UNHCR was established in 1950 in the wake of the mass displacements caused due to the Second World War in Europe.
Since then, it has provided relief to thousands of refugees and displaced persons in many parts of the world.
The UNHCR has also won the Nobel Prize for Peace twice (1954 and 1981).
The chief legal document that governs the work of the UNHCR is the 1951 Refugee Convention.
The organisation works in 135 countries and in India, has offices in New Delhi and Chennai. It first established its presence in India in 1981.
The UNHCR is headed by the High Commissioner for Refugees.
Its parent organisation is the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA).
The UNHCR gives the Nansen Refugee Award annually to people who work in the field of refugee rights and protection.

1951 Refugee Convention

The 1951 Refugee Convention is a UN treaty that defines who a refugee is and establishes the rights of such persons and also of those who are granted asylum.

It is the main legal document that governs the working of the UNHCR.
It is also called the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees or the Geneva Convention of 28 July 1951.
It also talks about the responsibilities and legal obligations of countries that grant asylum status to people.
Apart from that, the Convention also defines those who are not eligible for asylum status, such as war criminals.

The Conventions stipulates that a refugee shall not be prosecuted by a country for illegal entry.
The Refugee Convention also prescribes some minimum standards for the treatment of refugees with respect to giving them rights of access to justice, education, travel, etc.
India is not a signatory to the 1951 Refugee Convention.

1967 Protocol

The Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, alternatively known as the 1967 Protocol, is a major international document for refugee rights.

The protocol expands the definition of a refugee given in the Convention.
It also removes the Euro-centricity of the Convention.
India is not a signatory to the 1967 Protocol.

UNHCR and India

Even though India is not a signatory to the Refugee Convention and the Protocol, and also does not have a national refugee protection framework, it accepts a large number of asylum seekers and refugees into the country.
Though the country generally follows the principle of non-refoulement as defined in the UNHCR guidelines, India deals with different refugee groups differently, that is, on a case by case basis.
Security considerations have led to the government granting asylum and refugee rights based on the group of people concerned.
Most of the government-protected refugees are Tibetans and Sri Lankan Tamils.

Some of the constraints that the UNHCR finds in working towards their goals in India are:

The lack of a national refugee protection framework.
Limited understanding among the local population of the plight of refugees results in a lack of empathy and often, exploitation and discrimination towards them.
The steady rise in the number of asylum-seekers from Myanmar and Afghanistan during the past few years has reduced protection space.
Against the broader background of difficult socio-economic conditions for large segments of India’s population, a rise in racism and xenophobia have undermined the tradition of tolerance in India.
Security concerns and steps taken by the government in dealing with this might result in making things more difficult for refugees, especially in regularising their stay in the country.
In January 2019, a Rohingya family was sent back to Myanmar by the government, and the UNHCR had expressed regret over the decision. The family had been detained in a prison in Assam for illegal entry since 2013. The UNHCR also sought clarification from the government on the return of Rohingya refugees.
India has had to deal with enormous refugee problems many times in its history since independence.
- The partition led to millions being displaced from their homes.
  - The 1951 Refugee Convention talked about people who had lost the protection of their state of origin or nationality, which meant that it was applicable to only those who were fleeing state-sponsored or state-supported persecution.
  - This kept out Indians and Pakistanis who were displaced due to the partition, as they were fleeing social persecution.
  - India’s apathy towards the Convention can be partly blamed on the international community’s rejection of the plea of both India and Pakistan to include internally displaced people.
- The 1971 war with Pakistan led to a huge influx of refugees from Bangladesh into the eastern border with India.
- - An estimated 10 million people fled to India by the end of 1971. This created a big drain on the resources of the country.
  - India’s appeal for financial aid to the UN did not find much success, and the government had to contend with a pledge for a paltry amount.

Another reason the Nehru Government did not sign the Convention or the Protocol is the fear of unnecessary interference in India’s internal matters by international powers.

- The porous nature of the borders in the subcontinent, the resource crunch, the diverse demography and the political situation at the time made it impossible for India to be a signatory.

The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) has released its annual Global Trends report before the World Refugee Day (20th June).

Global Trends is published every year to count and track the numbers of refugees, internally displaced people, people who have returned to their countries or areas of origin, asylum-seekers, stateless people and other populations of concern to UNHCR.

Key Points

Displacement in 2019:
Nearly 80 million people were forcibly displaced by the end of 2019 — which is nearly 1% of the global population.
Half of those displaced were children.
Of the 80 million people, 26 million were cross-border refugees,7 million wereinternally displaced people, 4.2 million were asylum seekers and 3.6 million were Venezuelans displaced abroad.
More thaneight of every 10 refugees (85%) are in developing countries, generally a country neighbouring the one they fled.
Five countries account for two-thirds of people displaced across borders:Syria, Venezuela, Afghanistan, South Sudan and Myanmar.
Syria has been the top countryof origin for refugees since 2014.
Reason of Displacement:
Persecution, conflict, violence, human rights violations or events seriously disturbing public order were the main reasons behind the forced displacement.
80% of the world’s displaced people are in countries or territories affected by acute food insecurityand malnutrition – many of them facing climate and other disaster risk.
Comparison of Displacement in Past Decade (2010-19):
The number of refugees, under the UNHCR mandate, has doubled from about 10 million in 2010 to 20.4 million at the end of 2019. Close to 53% were newly displaced.
1 in every 97 people were affected by forced displacement in 2019, compared to 1 in every 159 people in 2010 and 1 in every 174 in 2005.
Nearly to 40% of those displaced (or 30-34 million) forcibly between 2010-2019 include children below 18 years of age.
Very few people who have been displaced were able to return to their homes.
In the 1990s, on average 1.5 million refugees were able to return home each year. That number has fallen to around 3,85,000 in the past decade (2010-2019).

World Refugee Day

It is an international day designated by the United Nationsto honour refugees around the globe.
It falls each year on20th June and celebrates the strength and courage of people who have been forced to flee their home country to escape conflict or persecution.

It is an occasion to build empathy and understanding for the refugee’s plight and to recognize their resilience in rebuilding their lives.

UNDP

Headquarters: New York, New York, United States

Head: Achim Steiner

Founded: 22 November 1965, United States

Parent organization: United Nations Economic and Social Council

Awards: Shorty Social Good Award for Best in Live Events, Shorty Social Good Award for Best Work for Developing Nations

The United Nations Development Programme is the United Nations’ global development network. It promotes technical and investment cooperation among nations and advocates for change and connects countries to knowledge, experience and resources to help people build a better life for themselves.
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) provides expert advice, training and grants support to developing countries, with an increasing emphasis on assistance to the least developed countries. It promotes technical and investment cooperation among nations.

The UNDP Executive Board is made up of representatives from 36 countries around the world who serve on a rotating basis.
It is funded entirely by voluntary contributions from member nations.
UNDP is central to the United Nations Sustainable Development Group (UNSDG), a network that spans almost 170 countries and unites the 40 UN funds, programmes, specialized agencies and other bodies working to advance the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
The UNDP is considered an executive board within the UN General Assembly (UNGA).

It is headed by an Administrator.

Human Development Report

The Human Development Report (HDR) is an annual report published by the Human Development Report Office of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).

The Human Development Index (HDI) is a statistic composite index of life expectancy, education, and per capita income indicators, which are used to rank countries into four tiers of human development.
A country scores a higher HDI when the lifespan is higher, the education level is higher, and the Gross National Income GNI (PPP) per capita is higher.

UNDP and India

India and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) have worked since 1951 on various issues related to human development involving sustainable livelihoods, environment, literacy, institutional strengthening, sustainable energy and resilience.

The Government of India aligned with UNDP to work on the India 2030 National Development Mission and build further Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
The three major areas of focus for UNDP India’s country programme for 2018-2022 are:
- Inclusive Growth
- Environment & Energy
- Strengthening Systems & Institutions
The nodal agency for all matters related to UNDP in India is the Department of Economic Affairs, Finance Ministry, GOI.
The UNDP has offices in 6 locations in India.

UNDP’s Accelerator Lab

The United Nations Development Programme(UNDP) has launched its Accelerator Lab in India. The project has been launched in collaboration with the government’s Atal Innovation Mission and will look to solve issues through innovative solutions.

In November 2019, the United Nations Development Programme launched its Accelerator Lab in India to work on tackling pollution in collaboration with the government’s Atal Innovation Mission (AIM).

Air pollution and Sustainable water management will be the issues addressed by the lab.
What is Accelerator Lab?
- Developed by the collaboration of UNDP, Federal Republic of Germany and the State of Qatar, Accelerator Lab is an innovative initiative to find solutions for the new complex challenges faced by the world.
- India’s Accelerator Lab will be part of a network of 60 global labs covering 78 nations, that will test and scale new solutions to global challenges like climate change and inequality.
- These Labs will identify grassroots solutions together with local actors and validate their potential to accelerate development.

Objectives

This lab will seek to address some of the most pressing issues facing India, such as air pollution, sustainable water management and client-resilient livelihoods through innovation.
The vision is to make faster progress in meeting the ambitious Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)of the U.N. by 2030.

Accelerator Lab

The Accelerator Lab is an innovative new initiative by the UNDP, State of Qatar and the Federal Republic of Germany to find 21st century solutions to today’s complex new challenges.
India’s Accelerator Lab will be part of a network of 60 global labs covering 78 nations, that will test and scale new solutions to global challenges like climate change and inequality.
These Labs will identify grassroots solutions together with local actors and validate their potential to accelerate development.
Atal Innovation Mission: It is a flagship national innovation initiative of the Government of India under the NITI Aayog. It aims to promote a culture of innovation and entrepreneurship.

OPEC

The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries is an intergovernmental organization of 13 countries. Founded on 14 September 1960 in Baghdad by the first five members, it has since 1965 been headquartered in Vienna, Austria, although Austria is not an OPEC member state.

About OPEC

OPEC stands for Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries.
It is a permanent, intergovernmental organization, created at the Baghdad Conference in 1960, by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela.
It aims to manage the supply of oil in an effort to set the price of oil in the world market, in order to avoid fluctuations that might affect the economies of both producing and purchasing countries.
It is headquartered in Vienna, Austria.
Today OPEC is a cartel that includes 14 nations, predominantly from the middle east whose sole responsibility is to control prices and moderate supply.
OPEC membershipis open to any country that is a substantial exporter of oil and which shares the ideals of the organization.
Gabon terminated its membership in January 1995. However, it rejoined the Organization in July 2016.
As of 2019, OPEC has a total of 14 Member Countries viz. Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates(UAE), Saudi Arabia, Algeria, Libya, Nigeria, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Republic of Congo, Angola, Ecuador and Venezuela are members of OPEC.

OPEC Countries – Objectives

OPEC’s main objectives are given below:

Unification and coordination of petroleum policies among Member Countries, in order to achieve just and stable prices for petroleum producers
Ensuring of an efficient, economic and regular supply of petroleum to consuming nations and an adequate return of investment

OPEC Countries – Functions

Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries(OPEC) has a working methodology which is mentioned below.

The OPEC Member Countries adjust their oil productions activities in order to bring stability to the petroleum market and help manufacturers get a good return on their investments. This policy is also designed to ensure that oil consumers continue to receive stable supplies of oil.
Twice a year, the ministry of energy and hydrocarbon affairs meet twice a year to review the status of the international oil market and decide upon steps that will bring security in the oil market
The Member Countries also hold other meetings that address various point of interests including that of petroleum and economic experts nad specialized bodies such as committees and panels in charge of the environment.

What is OPEC+?

The non-OPEC countries which export crude oil along with the 14 OPECs are termed as OPEC plus countries.
OPEC plus countries include Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Brunei, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Mexico, Oman, Russia, South Sudan and Sudan.
Saudi and Russia, both have been at the heart of a three-year alliance of oil producers known as OPEC Plus — which now includes 11 OPEC members and 10 non-OPEC nations — that aims to shore up oil prices with production cuts.

Why OPEC plus came into existence?

When Russia concluded the Vienna Agreement in 2016, the Russian leadership believed that it would help prepare the country for the Russian presidential elections in March 2018.
Higher oil prices ensured the Kremlin’s financial capacity to lead a successful electoral campaign.
This changed the regime’s priorities – from satisfying the needs of the general population to ensuring the sustainability of the Kremlin’s alliance with powerful tycoons, including that controlling oil production.
For Saudi Arabia, turning what had been an ad hoc coalition into a formal group provides a hedge (protection) against future oil-market turbulence.
For Russia, the formalization of the group helps expand Putin’s influence in the Middle East
However, both reportedly aimed at causing a drop in oil prices in order to hit US shale producers, who have continued to benefit from OPEC production cuts by expanding their market share.

International Energy Agency

The International Energy Agency (IEA) is an autonomous organisation which works to ensure reliable, affordable and clean energy.
It was established in the wake of 1973 (set up in 1974) oil crisis after the OPEC cartel had shocked the world with a steep increase in oil prices.
It is headquartered in Paris, France

The IEA has four main areas of focus, i.e. 4Es:

Energy security,
Economic development,
Environmental awareness and
Engagement worldwide.
India became an associate member of the International Energy Agency in
Mexico officially became the International Energy Agency’s 30th member country in February 2018, and its first member in Latin America.

OPEC and its allies, together known as OPEC+, plan on tapering production cuts in January 2021 from a current 7.7 million barrels per day (bpd) to about 5.7 million bpd. OPEC+ is scheduled to meet on Nov. 30 and Dec. 1 to set policy.
The new system of taxes, approved by Russian President Vladimir Putin, to help Russia weather the economic fallout from the COVID-19 pandemic, make it more expensive for energy companies to boost production from mature oil fields and produce more heavy crude. That could make Russia’s energy sector more willing to accept tighter policies from the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and its allies, known as OPEC+, rather than engaging in a tussle with other oil-producing countries such as Saudi Arabia over oil market share, analysts say.

Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi outlined a national plan that would contain our carbon footprint, increase the use of gas as a fuel, and hike our annual oil refinery capacity from 250 to 400 million tonnes in a few years. With India’s crude imports projected to rise robustly, recently he expressed the hope that OPEC would not squeeze supply unfairly, and made a pitch for sweeter deals in terms of lower prices and longer credit periods.

WIPO

The World Intellectual Property Organization is one of the 15 specialized agencies of the United Nations. The World Intellectual Property Organisation or WIPO is a UN specialized agency created in 1967 to promote intellectual property (IP) protection and encourage creative activity all over the world. WIPO is basically a global forum for IP policy, services, information and cooperation.

Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland

Founded: 14 July 1967

Head: Daren Tang

Parent organization: United Nations Economic and Social Council

Formation: 14 July 1967; 53 years ago

The World Intellectual Property Organisation or WIPO is a global body for the promotion and protection of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR).

It acts as a global forum for IP Services.
WIPO is a self-funded agency of the United Nations.
With 192 members, WIPO’s motto is to encourage creative activity, to promote the protection of intellectual property throughout the world.
It is at present headed by Francis Gurry, who is its Director-General. WIPO is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland.
WIPO has its origins in the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property (BIRPI), which was established in 1893.

‘WIPO is dedicated to developing a balanced and accessible international Intellectual Property (IP) system, which rewards creativity, stimulates innovation and contributes to economic development while safeguarding the public interest.’

Functions of WIPO

The World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) was established with the intent to perform the following functions:

To assist the development of campaigns that improve IP Protection all over the globe and keep the national legislations in harmony.
Signing international agreements related to Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) protection.
To implement administrative functions discussed by the Berne and Paris Unions.
To render legal and technical assistance in the field of IP.
To conduct research and publish its results as well as to collect and circulate information.
To ensure the work of services that facilitate the International Intellectual Property Protection.
To implement other appropriate and necessary actions.

WIPO Treaties

Name of the Treaty	Description
WIPO Performance and Phonograms Treaty (WPPT)	WPPT deals with the rights of two types of beneficiaries, especially in the digital environment: For example: v Singers, Actors, Musicians, etc. (Performers) v Producers of Phonograms
Budapest Treaty	International Recognition of the Deposit of Microorganisms for the Purposes of Patent Procedure was the purpose of this treaty
Madrid Protocol for the International Registration of Marks	The Protocol ensures the protection of a mark in many countries by securing an international registration that has an effect in all of the designated Contracting Parties.
Marrakesh Treaty to Facilitate Access to Published Works by Visually Impaired Persons and Persons with Print Disabilities	Marrakesh Treaty allowed copyright exceptions that facilitated the creation of accessible versions of books. It also provided copyrighted works for the visually impaired.
WIPO Copyright Treaty	It dealt with the protection of works and the rights of their authors in the digital environment.

WIPO and India

India joined the WIPO in 1975.

India is a part of the following WIPO Treaties:

IPO Convention (1975)
Paris Convention (1998)
Berne Convention (1928)
Patent Cooperation Treaty (1998)
Phonograms Convention (1975)
Nairobi Treaty (1983)
Nice Agreement (2019)
Locarno Agreement (2019)
Vienna Agreement (2019)

India acceded to all of the above treaties. India was the first country to ratify the Marrakesh Treaty.

India has jumped places in the Global Innovation Index (GII) in recent years. In the 2019 GII, India is ranked 52nd, which is a big leap from previous years.

Since 2011, India is the top-ranked innovative country in the Southern and Central Asia region.
India has been outperforming on innovation relative to its GDP per capita for eight years at a stretch.
On innovation quality, India ranks second among middle-income economies globally.
The Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) is a GII Knowledge Partner since 2009.
In India, the Ministry of Commerce and Industry deals with WIPO and related issues.

WIPO Publications

The Global Innovation Index (GII) is a global ranking for countries for success in and capacity for innovation.

It is published by the WIPO in association with Cornell University and graduate business school INSEAD.
The index ranks countries based on 80 indicators, ranging from intellectual property filing rates to Research and Development, online creativity, mobile application creation, computer software spending, education spending, scientific & technical publications and ease of starting a business.

OECD

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development is an intergovernmental economic organisation with 37 member countries, founded in 1961 to stimulate economic progress and world trade.
Most OECD members are high-income economies with a very high Human Development Index (HDI) and are regarded as developed countries. OECD members are democratic countries that support free-market economies.

It provides a platform for its member countries to compare policy experiences, seek answers to common problems, identify and share best practices, and coordinate domestic and international policies of its member nations.
OECD is an official United Nations observer and is referred to as a think-tank or as a monitoring group.
The OECD’s headquarters are at the Château de la Muette in Paris, France.
The OECD member states collectively comprised 62.2% of global nominal GDP (US$49.6 trillion) and 42.8% of global GDP (Int$54.2 trillion) at purchasing power parity in 2017.
- The international dollar: It is also known as Geary–Khamis dollar.
  - It is a hypothetical unit of currency that has the same Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) that the U.S. dollar had in the United States at a given point in time.
  - It is widely used in economics and financial statistics for various purposes, such as to determine and analyze the PPP and the GDP of various countries and markets.
  - It is based on the twin concepts of PPP of currencies and the international average prices of commodities.

OECD History

OECD originated in 1948, as the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC).
The Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC) was founded to govern the predominantly US-funded Marshall Plan for post-war reconstruction on the continent.
The OEEC was instrumental in helping the European Economic Community (EEC). The EEC has evolved into the European Union (EU) to establish a European Free Trade Area.
OEEC was renamed as the OECD in 1961 when the USA and Canada joined to reflect a broader membership.

OECD Objectives

The objectives of the OECD include fostering economic development and cooperation and fighting poverty through the promotion of economic stability.

It also ensures that the environmental impact of growth and social development is always considered.
Over the years, OECD has raised the standards of living in multiple countries.
It has also contributed to the expansion of world trade.

OECD Functions and Responsibilities

The OECD plays an integral role in promoting economic stability on a global scale. The OECD publishes and updates a model tax convention that serves as a template for allocating taxation rights between countries.

The OECD is responsible for publishing economic reports, statistical databases, analyses, and forecasts on the outlook for economic growth worldwide.
The group analyzes the impact of social issues on economic growth and makes recommendations to foster economic growth globally. These recommendations extend forethoughts to the environmental concerns associated with economic development too.
The organization endeavors to eliminate bribery and other forms of financial crimes worldwide.
The OECD also maintains a “blacklist” of nations that are considered uncooperative tax havens.
It also took efforts to eradicate tax avoidance by profitable corporations and in the G-20 countries. It also encourages the G-20 countries to promote tax reforms.

Significance of OECD

The OECD provides its members with a forum in which governments can work together to share experiences and seek solutions to common problems.

OECD Composition

The OECD is composed of Member Countries, Substantive Committees, and the OECD Secretariat.
The OECD Secretariat is led by the Secretary-General and provides support to Standing and Substantive Committees. It is organized into Directorates.
OECD currently has 36 member nations and the Member Countries are each represented by a delegation which is led by their ambassadors.
The 36 Member Countries consist of Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Chile, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
The European Commission participates in the work of the OECD alongside the EU member states.
Colombia has been invited to join while six other countries’ (Argentina, Brazil, Bulgaria, Croatia, Peru, and Romania) request to join is under the consideration of the OECD.
India is not a part of this organisation.

UNIDO

Headquarters location: Vienna, Austria

Head: Li Yong

Founded: 17 November 1966

Parent organization: United Nations Economic and Social Council

Formation: 17 November 1966

The United Nations Industrial Development Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations that assists countries in economic and industrial development. It is headquartered at the UN Office in Vienna, Austria, with a permanent presence in over 60 countries.

Mission: To promote and accelerate inclusive and sustainable industrial development (ISID) in the Member States.

UNIDO has 170 member states, as of April 2019.
The UNIDO mission was adopted in 2013 at the 15th UNIDO General Conference as described in the Lima Declaration.

UNIDO and India

The UNIDO centres in India have been revamped into the new centre at Delhi called the International Centre for Inclusive & Sustainable Industrial Development (ICISID). The Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), formerly called the DIPP, is the nodal agency for all UNIDO-related activities in India.

UNIDO and the National Institute of Solar Energy (NISE) initiated a skill development programme that would benefit the Solar Thermal Energy sector on different levels.

National Institute of Solar Energy (NISE)

The National Institute of Solar Energy (NISE), earlier known as the Solar Energy Centre (SEC) administered by the Ministry of New Renewable Energy (MNRE), was declared as an autonomous body by the Government of India in 2013.

The National Institute of Solar Energy (NISE) is an apex body in the field of Solar Energy for National Research and Development.
The NISE assists the MNRE in implementing the National Solar Mission.
It coordinates with other research, technology and projects.

It is located in Gurugram, Haryana.

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development

Headquarters location: Geneva, Switzerland

Head: Mukhisa Kituyi

Founder: United Nations General Assembly

Founded: 30 December 1964

Formation: 30 December 1964; 55 years ago

Parent organizations: United Nations General Assembly, United Nations Secretariat

The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development was established in 1964 as a permanent intergovernmental body. UNCTAD is the part of the United Nations Secretariat dealing with trade, investment, and development issues.

UNCTAD Objectives

Framing policies in various domains such as trade, technology, finance, aid, and transport is the most important priority of UNCTAD. Geneva is the permanent secretariat of UNCTAD and the conference ordinarily meets once in four years.

UNCTAD collects data and conducts research and analyses policies.

UNCTAD, with its work in the national and global levels, aims to help countries to:

Understand options to address macro-level development challenges.
Acquire beneficial integration into the international trading system.
Reduce the dependency on commodities by diversifying the economies.
Decrease their exposure to debt and financial volatility.
Increase development-friendliness by attracting more investments.
Increase technologies related to the digital domain.
Give more thrust to innovation and entrepreneurship.
Aid local firms to move up value chains.
Facilitate the flow of goods across borders.
Prevent consumer abuse.
Competition should not be stifled, hence any concerned regulations would be cross-checked.
Effectively utilise natural resources that would help in adapting to climate change.

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)released the World Investment Report 2020.

The World Investment Report focuses on trends in Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)worldwide, at the regional and country levels and emerging measures to improve its contribution to development.

Key Points

Global Scenario:
According to the report, global FDI flows are forecast to decrease by up to 40% in 2020, from their 2019 value of $1.54 trillion.
This would bring global FDI below $1 trillion for the first time since 2005. The FDI is projected to decrease by a further 5% to 10% in 2021.
Developing economies are expected to see the biggest fall in FDI because they rely more on investment in Global Value Chain (GVC) based industries, which have been severely hit due to Covid-19 pandemic.
They have also not been able to put in place the same economic support measures as developed economies.
However, the investment flows are expected to slowly recover by the start of 2022.
Global FDI flows rose modestly in 2019, following the sizable declines registered in 2017 and 2018.
The rise in FDI was due to the waning of impact of the 2017 tax reforms in the United States.

India’s Investment Scenario:

India jumped from12th position in 2018 to 9th position in 2019 among the world’s largest FDI recipients.
In 2019, the FDI inflows into India jumped over 20% to $51 billion.
The report also observed that FDI into India may decline sharply in 2020because of the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic and the consequent lockdown measures, supply chain disruptions and economic slowdown.
In India the number of greenfield investment announcements declined by 4% in the first quarter of financial year 2020-21. The Mergers and acquisitions (M&A) also contracted by 58%.
A greenfield investment is a type of FDI in which a parent company creates a subsidiary in a different country, building its operations from the ground up.
However, the report mentioned that India’s large market will continue to attract market-seeking investments to the country.
India’s professional services and the digital economy could see a faster rebound as global venture capital firms and technology companies continue to show interest in India’s market through acquisitions.
Investors concluded deals worth over $650 million in the first quarter of 2020, mostly in the digital sector.

Way Forward

The efforts need to be put to increase the investment and also countries need to deal with Covid-19 pandemic strategically.

To deal with the current slowdown, India can provide its poor with direct cash, which will increase the demand in the economy. This will subsequently lead to increase in investment and production in the economy.

ILO

The International Labour Organization is a United Nations agency whose mandate is to advance social and economic justice through setting international labour standards. Founded in October 1919 under the League of Nations, it is the first and oldest specialised agency of the UN.

International Labour Organization (ILO) – History

The ILO was established as an agency for the League of Nations following World War I.

It was established by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919.
Its founders had made great strides in social thought and action before the establishment of the organization itself.
It became the first specialised agency of the United Nations (UN) in the year 1946.
The ILO has played a significant role in promoting labour and human rights. It had held a significant position during the Great Depression (1930s) for ensuring labour rights.
It played a key role in the decolonization process and in the victory over apartheid in South Africa.
The organization got the Nobel Peace Prize in 1969, for its efforts to improve peace amongst the classes, and for promoting justice and fair work for the workers.

International Labour Organization (ILO) Objective

The ILO is the only tripartite U.N. agency. The ILO is a meeting point for governments, workers and employers of ILO’s member States to set labour standards, improve upon policies and create programs that promote decent work for people. The four strategic objectives at the heart of the Decent Work agenda are:

To develop and effectuate standards, fundamental principles, and fundamental rights at work.
To ensure that men and women have equal access to decent work while enhancing opportunities for the same.
To magnify the coverage and effectiveness of social protection for everyone.
To strengthen Tripartism and social dialogue.

International Labour Organization (ILO) – Structure

The basis of the ILO is the tripartite principle. The ILO comprises the International Labour Conference, the Governing Body, and the International Labour Office.

International Labour Conference:
- The progressive policies of the ILO are set by the International Labour Conference.
- The Conference is an annual event, which happens in Geneva, Switzerland. The conference brings together all the representatives of the ILO.
- Function: It is a panel for the review of the important issues regarding labour.
Governing Body:

- The Governing Body is the executive body of the International Labour Organization.
- The governing body meets in Geneva. It meets three times annually.
- The Office is the secretariat of the Organization.
- It is composed of 56 titular members, and 66 deputy members.
- Functions:

- - Makes decisions regarding the agenda and the policies of the International Labour Conference.
  - It adopts the draft Programme and Budget of the Organization for submission to the Conference.
  - Election of the Director-General.
International Labour Office:

- It is the permanent secretariat of the International Labour Organization.
- Functions: It decides the activities for ILO and is supervised by the Governing Body and the Director-General.
- The ILO member States hold periodically regional meetings to discuss the relevant issues of the concerned regions.
- Each of the ILO’s 183 Member States has the right to send four delegates to the Conference: two from government and one each representing workers and employers, each of whom may speak and vote independently.

International Labour Organization (ILO) Functions

The ILO plays an important role in the formulation of policies which are focussed on solving labour issues. The ILO also has other functions, such as:

It adopts international labour standards. They are adopted in the form of conventions. It also controls the implementation of its conventions.
It aids the member states in resolving their social and labour problems.
It advocates and works for the protection of Human rights.
It is responsible for the research and publication of information regarding social and labour issues.
The Trade Unions play a pivotal role in developing policies at the ILO, thus the Bureau for Workers’ Activities at the secretariat is dedicated to strengthening independent and democratic trade unions so they can better defend workers’ rights and interests.
The ILO also assumes a supervisory role: it monitors the implementation of ILO conventions ratified by member states.
- The implementation is done through the Committee of Experts, the International Labour Conference’s Tripartite Committee and the member-states.
- Member states are obligated to send reports on the development of the implementation of the conventions they have approved.
Registration of complaints: The ILO registers complaints against entities that are violating international rules.

- The ILO, however, does not impose any sanctions on the governments.
- Complaints can also be filed against member states for not complying with ILO conventions that have been ratified.

International Labour Standards: The ILO is also responsible for setting International Labour Standards. The international labour conventions which are set by the ILO are ratified by the member states. These are mostly non-binding in nature.

- But once a member state accepts conventions, it becomes legally binding. The conventions are often used to bring national laws in alignment with international standards.

ILO Global Commission on the Future of Work: The formation of an ILO Global Commission on the Future of Work marks the second stage in the ILO Future of Work Initiative.

- The Commission outlines a vision for a human-centred agenda that is based on investing in people’s capabilities, institutions of work and decent and sustainable work.
- It also describes the challenges caused by new technology, climate change and demography and appeals for a collective global response to the disturbances being caused in the world of work.

International Labour Organization – Mission

The ILO’s mission is to promote decent work for all workers. This is accomplished by promoting social dialogue, protection, and employment generation.

The ILO provides technical support along with the support of development partners to multiple countries in order to achieve this mission.

International Labour Organization and India

India is a founding member of the ILO. It became a permanent member of the ILO Governing Body in 1922. The first ILO Office in India was inaugurated in 1928.

India has ratified six fundamental conventions.
India has not ratified Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise Convention, 1948 (No. 87) and Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention, 1949 (No. 98).
As the two conventions involve the granting of certain rights that are prohibited under the statutory rules for government employees.

Labour Movement in India

The growth of the trade union movement in India was an organic process. It started towards the tail end of the nineteenth century and has had a parallel development to India’s industrial development. The difficulties of the workers’ lives came into light during the 1850s. The labour movement in India can be categorized into two phases: the first phase lasting from the 1850s -1918, and the second from 1918- till Independence.

The origin of the labour movements in India can be traced back to the 1860s, however, the first agitation occurred only in 1875.
The actions of the working class in the earliest stage were sporadic and disorganized in nature and hence were mostly futile.
It was only from the second decade of the twentieth century in Bombay, that serious attempts were made for the formation of associations that could lead an organized form of protests.
The second phase witnessed the sporadic protests obtain an organized form. During this phase, Trade Unions were formed on modern lines.
The first labour tumult occurred in Bombay, 1875 under the leadership of S.S Bengalee.
It concentrated on the plight of workers, especially women and children.
This agitation led to the appointment of the first Factory Commission, 1875.
The first Factories Act was passed in 1881 consequently.
In 1890, M.N Lokhande established Bombay Mill Hands Association. This was the first organized labour union in India.
The 1920s was significant in this regard. Congress and the Communists made serious attempts to mobilize and establish a connection with the working class.
The first attempt to form an all-India organization was also made in the 1920s.
Features of the labour movements in this era:

- Leadership was exemplified by social reformers and not by the workers themselves.
- The movements in this era mainly concentrated on the welfare of workers rather than asserting their rights.
- They were organized, but there was no pan India presence.
- A strong intellectual foundation or agenda was missing.
- Their demands revolved around issues like that of women and children workers.

UNICEF

Headquarters: New York, New York, United States

Head: Henrietta H. Fore

Founded: 11 December 1946, New York, New York, United States

Founders: United Nations General Assembly, Ludwik Rajchman

Subsidiaries: UNICEF Australia, UNICEF Ireland, MORE

Parent organizations: United Nations General Assembly, United Nations Economic and Social Council

UNICEF, also known as the United Nations Children’s Fund, is a United Nations agency responsible for providing humanitarian and developmental aid to children worldwide. The agency is among the most widespread and recognizable social welfare organizations in the world, with a presence in 192 countries and territories.

UNICEF started as the International Children’s Emergency Fund (IECF) in 1946, formed by the UN Relief Rehabilitation Administration in order to offer relief and healthcare for affected children and mothers in the aftermath of the Second World War. In the same year, the UN established the United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) to manage its post-war relief work better. Though it became a permanent part of the UN in 1953 and subsequently changed its name to United Nations Children’s Fund, it continues to use the acronym UNICEF.

UNICEF engages in fighting for the rights of children all over the world.

It also works to provide safe shelter, healthcare, nutrition, education, equality and protection from disaster and conflicts.

Other areas the UNICEF works are providing vaccines, safe water and sanitation, HIV prevention in mothers and babies, protecting children from violence and abuse, early childhood development, adolescent health, etc.

It also works in regions embroiled in humanitarian crises, to give relief and rehabilitation.

Today, UNICEF works in more than 190 nations, in collaboration with other UN partners, and as a part of the larger UN system. It is not a specialised agency of the UN.

UNICEF also comes up with research reports on various aspects related to children all around the globe.

It received the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1965.

Scope of Work

After 1950, the UNICEF directed its efforts toward general programs for the improvement of children’s welfare, particularly in less-developed countries and in various emergency situations.
It eventually expanded its scope to the struggle of women, especially mothers, in the developing world. For example, it launched its ‘Women in Development Programme’ in 1980.
In 1982, UNICEF commenced a new children’s health program that focused on monitoring growth, oral rehydration therapy, advocating breastfeeding and immunization.
The work of the UNICEF includes:
Child Development and Nutrition;
Child Protection;
Education;
Child Environment;
Polio Eradication;
Reproductive and Child Health;
Children and AIDS;
Social Policy, Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation;
Advocacy and Partnership;
Behaviour Change Communication;
Emergency Preparedness and Response.
UNICEF mobilizes political will and material resources to help countries, particularly developing countries.
UNICEF is committed to ensuring special protection for the most disadvantaged children — victims of war, disasters, extreme poverty, all forms of violence and exploitation, especially those with disabilities.
UNICEF works with all its partners towards the attainment of the sustainable human development goals adopted by the world community.
The realization of the vision of peace and social progress enshrined in the Charter of the United Nations.

UNICEF and India

UNICEF’s partnership with India began in 1949. Its first office was established in New Delhi in 1952.

The nodal agency in India for interacting with UNICEF is the GOI’s Ministry of Women and Child Development.
Currently, UNICEF works in 17 states with more than 400 staff members.
UNICEF has been very active in India in the past many decades.
Most of their work in the country is by partnering with the government in the implementation of the various governmental schemes.
Though initially, the organisation focused on providing medicines, equipment and supplies, currently, it contributes in many broad areas such as providing low-cost, nutritionally balanced food products from locally available food sources; giving training to personnel engaged in child-care projects, sanitation, water supply, health and family planning; and evolving simplified basic-educational kits, specially in the field of science and technology.
UNICEF’s priority in India is children in the age group 0 – 5 years since most deaths happen within this group. For this, UNICEF seeks to work with mothers and ensure they have access to adequate nutrition and healthcare.
A second area of priority is to focus on vulnerable areas like slums, backward remote areas, drought or flood-prone areas, etc.
Another noteworthy point is that India is among the top donors to UNICEF.
A problem encountered in the functioning of UNICEF in the country is that since it works in tandem with government schemes, the execution is sluggish in pace.

Strengths and Weaknesses of UNICEF

Like many global organizations around the world, UNICEF has its fair share of strengths and weaknesses. They are listed in brief below:

Strengths:

UNICEF can impact major changes in strategy as well as practice, even though the pace may be slow.
It has become an authority on the education of girls, especially through its Child Protection programmes and the UNAIDS.
UNICEF has successfully made the shift from a needs-based, vertical sector programme to a rights-based approach rooted in the Convention on the Rights of the Child, although greater clarity on the implementation of rights-based programming at country level is still required. Read more on the Convention on the Rights of the Child in PIB dated 20 Nov, 2019.
UNICEF plays a significant role in emergency response and it has improved by a huge degree in emergency planning and preparedness.
It has gender sensitive programming although it has miles to go in this regard.
Security standards have been introduced and security capacity and communications networks strengthened.

Weaknesses:

Self-Image & criticising governments: UNICEF has the image of an agency that keeps its distance, never directly pointing fingers at rogue governments, for fear of its operations being shunted out of that country.
Partnership: There has been a rapid increase in collaboration and diversification of partnerships with civil society. Despite this, UNICEF priorities and strategies for partnerships are limiting the scope for partnership.
Bureaucracy and complexity: UNICEF is a largely bureaucratic organisation and suffers from the problems associated with this such as wasteful spending, red tape, etc

Strategic Plan (2018–2021)

The plan will help realize and protect the rights of all children through five goal areas, which are linked to both the Sustainable Development Goalsand the Convention on the Rights of the Child:
every child survives and thrives;
every child learns;
every child is protected from violence and exploitation;
every child lives in a safe and clean environment; and
every child has an equitable chance in life.
The plan also includes two additional areas that cut across all of the other goals:
gender equality
humanitarian action
It promotes synergies across goal areas to address early childhood development and adolescent development, and to support children with disabilities.

The Future of the Child (The Child in 2030)

Foresight for action: It is the methodologies, practices and processes that help UNICEF to navigate uncertainty and better prepare for the future.
Foresight identifies emerging trends and the changing circumstances that could impact the future of the child.
It allows UNICEF to look beyond what is probable and prepare for what is possible.
To demonstrate the utility of foresight, UNICEF analyses five megatrends that are of growing importance for children:
global health crises
inequality and the middle-income trap
the changing nature and scale of the conflict
global migration
the effects of technology on work and education.

ASEAN

(Association of Southeast Asian Nations)

Association of Southeast Asian Nations is a regional intergovernmental organization comprising ten countries in Southeast Asia, which promotes intergovernmental cooperation and The Association of Southeast Asian Nations or ASEAN is an organisation formed by the governments of Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Singapore in 1967 to promote economic growth, peace, security, social progress and cultural development in the Southeast Asian region.

facilitates economic, political, security, military, educational, and sociocultural integration among its members and other countries in Asia.

ASEAN also regularly engages other countries in the Asia-Pacific region and beyond. A major partner of Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, ASEAN maintains a global network of alliances and dialogue partners and is considered by many as a global powerhouse.

ASEAN History

ASEAN was established on 8th August 1967 in Bangkok, Thailand with the signing of the Bangkok Declaration (ASEAN Declaration) by the founding fathers of the countries of Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore, and the Philippines. The preceding organisation was the Association of Southeast Asia (ASA) comprising of Thailand, the Philippines, and Malaysia.
Five other nations joined the ASEAN in subsequent years making the current membership to ten countries.

ASEAN Members

Thailand (founding member)
The Philippines (founding member)
Malaysia (founding member)
Singapore (founding member)
Indonesia (founding member)
Brunei (joined in 1984)
Vietnam (joined in 1995)
Lao PDR (joined in 1997)
Myanmar (joined in 1997)
Cambodia (joined in 1999)

There are two observer States namely, Papua New Guinea and Timor Leste (East Timor)

Genesis of ASEAN

1967 – ASEAN was established with the signing of the ASEAN Declaration (Bangkok Declaration) by its founding fathers.
Founding Fathers of ASEAN are: Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand.
1990s – Membership doubled after the changing conditions in the region following the end of the Vietnam War in 1975 and the Cold War in 1991.
Addition of Brunei (1984), Vietnam (1995), Laos and Myanmar (1997), and Cambodia (1999).
1995 – Members signed a deal to create a nuclear-free zone in Southeast Asia.
1997 – Adoption of ASEAN Vision 2020.
2003 – Bali Concord II for the establishment of an ASEAN Community.
2007 – Cebu Declaration, to accelerate the establishment of ASEAN Community by 2015.
2008 – ASEAN Charter comes into force and becomes a legally binding agreement.
2015 – Launch of ASEAN Community.

ASEAN Community is comprised of three pillars:

ASEAN Political-Security Community
ASEAN Economic Community
ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community
3rd largest market in the world – larger than EU and North American markets. 6th largest economy in the world, 3rd in Asia. Free-trade agreements (FTAs)with China, Japan, South Korea, India, Australia and New Zealand. Fourth most popular investment destination globally

ASEAN Purpose

Accelerating economic growth, cultural development, and social progress in the region by joint initiatives in the spirit of partnership and equality to cement the foundation for a peaceful and strong community of SE Asian countries.
Promoting peace and stability in the region by incorporating respect for justice and the rule of law in the relationships between nations and adherence to the United Nations principles.
Promoting active collaboration and mutual assistance in subjects of common interest in social, economic, cultural, administrative, scientific, and technical domains.
Assisting member countries via training and research facilities in the educational, administrative, technical, and professional domains.
Cooperating for better usage of agriculture and industries, trade expansion (including studying the problem of international commodity trade), improving communication and transportation facilities, and improving living standards among the people.
Promoting SE Asian studies.
Exploring more avenues for further cooperation among themselves, and maintaining close and advantageous cooperation with other international groupings of similar objectives.

ASEAN Fundamental Principles

Mutual respect for the independence, sovereignty, equality, territorial integrity, and national identity of all nations;
The right of every State to lead its national existence free from external interference, subversion or coercion;
Non-interference in the internal affairs of one another;
Settlement of differences or disputes by peaceful manner;
Renunciation of the threat or use of force; and
Effective cooperation among themselves.

ASEAN Headquarters

The body is headquartered in Jakarta, Indonesia.

Secretary-General: Lim Jock Hoi

Official Languages: Burmese, Filipino, Indonesian, Khmer, Lao, Malay, Mandarin, Tamil, Thai and Vietnamese

Working Language: English

The motto of ASEAN is “One Vision, One Identity, One Community”.

Institution Mechanism

Chairmanship of ASEAN rotates annually, based on the alphabetical order of the English names of Member States.
ASEAN Summit: The supreme policy making body of ASEAN. As the highest level of authority in ASEAN, the Summit sets the direction for ASEAN policies and objectives. Under the Charter, the Summit meets twice a year.

ASEAN Ministerial Councils: The Charter established four important new Ministerial bodies to support the Summit.

ASEAN Coordinating Council (ACC)
ASEAN Political-Security Community Council
ASEAN Economic Community Council
ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community Council
Decision Making: The primary mode of decision-making in ASEAN is consultation and consensus.
However, the Charter enshrines the principle of ASEAN-X– This means that if all member states are in agreement, a formula for flexible participation may be used so that the members who are ready may go ahead while members who need more time for implementation may apply a flexible timeline.

ASEAN-led Forums

ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF):Launched in 1993, the twenty-seven-member multilateral grouping was developed to facilitate cooperation on political and security issues to contribute to regional confidence-building and preventive diplomacy.
ASEAN Plus Three: The consultative group initiated in 1997 brings together ASEAN’s ten members, China, Japan, and South Korea.
East Asia Summit (EAS): First held in 2005, the summit seeks to promote security and prosperity in the region and is usually attended by the heads of state from ASEAN, Australia, China, India, Japan, New Zealand, Russia, South Korea, and the United States. ASEAN plays a central role as the agenda-setter.

Strengths & Opportunities

ASEAN commands far greater influence on Asia-Pacific trade, political, and security issues than its members could achieve individually.
Demographic dividend –It constitutes 3rd largest population in the world, of which more than half is below thirty years of age.
Economic:
3rd largest market in the world –larger than EU and North American markets.
6th largest economy in the world, 3rd in Asia.
Free-trade agreements (FTAs)with China, Japan, South Korea, India, Australia and New Zealand.
Fourth most popular investment destination
ASEAN’s share of global exports has also risen, from only 2 percent in 1967 to 7 percent by 2016, indicating the rising importance of trade to ASEAN’s economic prospects.
The ASEAN Single Aviation Market and Open Skies policies have increased its transport and connectivity potential.
ASEAN has contributed to regional stability by building much-needed norms and fostering a neutral environment to address shared challenges.

Challenges

Regional imbalances in the economic and social status of its individual markets.
Gap between rich and poor ASEAN member states remains very large and they have a mixed record on income inequality.
While Singapore boasts the highest GDP per capita—nearly $53,000 (2016), Cambodia’s per capita GDP is the lowest at less than $1,300.
Many regional initiatives were not able to be incorporated into national plans, as the less developed countries faced resource constraints to implement the regional commitments.
The members’ political systems are equally mixed with democracies, communist, and authoritarian states.
While the South China Sea is the main issue exposing the organization’s rifts.
ASEAN has been divided over major issues of human rights. For example, crackdowns in Myanmar against the Rohingyas.
Inability to negotiate a unified approach with regards to China, particularly in response to its widespread maritime claims in the South China Sea.
The emphasis on consensus sometimes becomes the a chief drawback – difficult problems have been avoided rather than confronted.
There is no central mechanism to enforce compliance.
Inefficient dispute-settlement mechanism, whether it be in the economic or political spheres.

India and ASEAN

India’s relationship with ASEAN is a key pillar of her foreign policy and the foundation of Act East Policy.
India has a separate Mission to ASEAN and the EAS in Jakarta.
India and ASEAN already has 25 years of Dialogue Partnership, 15 years of Summit Level interaction and 5 years of Strategic Partnership with ASEAN.

Economic Cooperation:

ASEAN is India’s fourth largest trading partner.
India’s trade with ASEAN stands at approx. 10.6% of India’s overall trade.
India’s export to ASEAN stands at 11.28% of our total exports. The ASEAN-India Free Trade Area has been completed.
ASEAN India-Business Council (AIBC) was set up in 2003 to bring key private sector players from India and the ASEAN countries on a single platform.
Socio-Cultural Cooperation: Programmes to boost People-to-People Interaction with ASEAN, such as inviting ASEAN students to India, Special Training Course for ASEAN diplomats, Exchange of Parliamentarians, etc.
Funds: Financial assistance has been provided to ASEAN countries from the following Funds:

ASEAN-India Cooperation Fund

ASEAN-India S&T Development Fund

ASEAN-India Green Fund

Delhi Declaration: To identify Cooperation in the Maritime Domain as the key area of cooperation under the ASEAN-India strategic partnership.
Delhi Dialogue: Annual Track 1.5 event for discussing politico-security and economic issues between ASEAN and India.
ASEAN-India Centre (AIC):To undertake policy research, advocacy and networking activities with organizations and think-tanks in India and ASEAN.
Political Security Cooperation: India places ASEAN at the centre of its Indo-Pacific vision of Security and Growth for All in the Region.

Commonwealth of Nations

The Commonwealth of Nations, generally known simply as the Commonwealth, is a political association of 54 member states, nearly all of which used to be territories of the British Empire. The Commonwealth of Nations is an association of independent sovereign states, most of which are former colonies once governed by the United Kingdom as part of the British Empire.
The British Monarch remains the head of the Commonwealth. Hence, the Queen of the United Kingdom, Elizabeth II is given the title of Head of the Commonwealth. This title doesn’t hold any political power over its member countries.

Structure of Commonwealth of Nations

The Commonwealth is primarily an organization in which countries with diverse economic backgrounds have an opportunity for close and equal interaction.

The primary activities of the Commonwealth are designed to create an atmosphere of economic cooperation between member nations, as well as the promotion of democracy and good governance in them.
The Commonwealth is not a political union of any sort and does not allow the United Kingdom to exercise any power over the affairs of the organization’s other members.
While some nations of the Commonwealth, known as Commonwealth Realms, recognize the British Monarch as their head of state (and thus in theory still have some limited political ties to London), the majority do not.

Members of Commonwealth

Membership is normally open to countries that accept the association’s basic aims. Members are required to have a present or past constitutional link to the United Kingdom or another Commonwealth member.

There are 54 countries in the Commonwealth, in Africa, Asia, the Americas, Europe, and the Pacific. Commonwealth countries are diverse – they are amongst the world’s biggest, smallest, richest, and poorest countries.
32 of the members are classified as small states. Small states are especially vulnerable to things like climate change or developmental challenges.
Every 2 years, the member countries meet to discuss issues affecting the Commonwealth and the wider world at the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM).
All members have an equal say regardless of size or wealth. This makes sure even the smallest countries have a voice in shaping the Commonwealth.
The Maldives re-joined the Commonwealth, more than three years after the Indian Ocean island nation quit amid mounting criticism of its human rights. In 2016, the Maldives pulled out of the Commonwealth. The Maldives has been formally reinstated into the Commonwealth as its 54th member state.

India and Commonwealth

India has been involved in every major part of the Commonwealth network of institutions, and it is one of its top sources of funds, experts, and training. It also accounts for a large share of trade among the member states. In the 2015–2016 fiscal year, India was the fourth-largest contributor to the Commonwealth’s budget and the third-largest funder of its joint office at the United Nations in New York.

WEF

The World Economic Forum, based in Cologny, Geneva Canton, Switzerland, is an international NGO, founded on 24 January 1971. and was formed with an initiative to improve the states of the world. This organisation was formerly known as the European Management Forum.

Initiatives under the World Economic Forum (WEF)

Some of the initiatives that were taken as a part of the World Economic Forum (WEF) are discussed below:

A global initiative for epidemics was launched at WEF in Davos on 19 January 2017. This initiative was named Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI), which aims to secure vaccine supplies for global emergencies and pandemics and to research new vaccines for tropical diseases.
Also in the year 2017, WEF launched the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) for the Earth Initiative which is a collaboration between WEF, Stanford University, and PwC. The initiative is funded through the Mava Foundation and in 2018, WEF announced that one project within this initiative was to be the Earth BioGenome Project with an aim to sequence the genomes of every organism on Earth.

World Economic Forum (WEF) 2020 – Agenda of the 50th Annual Meeting

The 4 major global issues that were on the agenda of the World Economic Forum (WEF) 2020 were

To understand how to govern the new technologies that will drive the 4th Industrial Revolution.
How to tackle the challenges arising from environmental and climate changes.
As new political, economic, and societal priorities change trade and consumption patterns, this Forum will try to understand how industries can transform to achieve more sustainable business models.
How to adapt to the demographic, social, and technological trends reshaping education, employment, and entrepreneurship.

World Economic Forum (WEF) 2020 – 50th Annual Meeting (Important Conclusions/Developments)

The 50th Annual Meeting of World Economic Forum (WEF) 2020 was held in Davos, Switzerland. Some of the important observations and conclusions made at the 50th Annual Meeting of the World Economic Forum 2020 are given below.

To develop Vaccines against Coronavirus, 3 programs were announced by the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI)
To mobilize $ 500 million for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG’s) in emerging markets. To achieve this, SDG-500, a new multi-stakeholder partnership was launched
A new multi-stakeholder effort aimed at supporting efforts to grow, conserve and restore 1 trillion trees by the end of the decade was announced.
It was observed that Vietnam and Indonesia are the new bright spots in the emerging world.
The National Business Council, incorporating 140 of the world’s largest companies, agreed to support efforts to develop a core set of common metrics and disclosures that could be used to measure private sector progress against key environmental, social and governance goals
Initiatives to promote entrepreneurship in Africa
Introduction of a Reskilling Revolution
Work with the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) to promote inclusive and sustainable growth globally.

World Economic Forum at 50: The Journey

Based in Geneva, Switzerland, WEF is a not-for-profit International organization established in the year 1971.
The Forum provides a platform for the CEOs of the largest companies, heads of state of countries, to meet each other and discuss business through bilateral meetings.
It’s a meet to showcase countries’ potential in order to attract businesses.
The theme of WEF 2020 is Stakeholders for a Cohesive and Sustainable World.
It is basically a networking event where countries project themselves to garner investment.

WEF Goals and Challenges

Protectionism is the biggest problem that the world is facing and the 50th summit of WEF is being held in this backdrop.
In the recent past, US has advocated protectionism and has also been trying to decimate the WTO and other such organizations.
The US’ approach towards climate agenda and towards trade has been disruptive.
Because of the US-China trade war, there has been a distinct fall in investment flows and trade flows. World trade faced renewed headwinds in 2018 as trade tensions and economic policy uncertainty rose sharply.
All the major, fastest-growing economies including India and China have slowed down presently. Most of the European economies are showing a growth of less than 1%.
Many economists are projecting that by the end of 2020 there might be a mild global recession.

World Trade and India

India is a land that has the power of democracy, demography, leadership, talent, culminating in the “power of opportunity.” These are the 5 selling points that India has projected to the rest of the world.
FDI: India needs to attract more FDI. India needs to get a place for manufacturing exports and if there are tariff and non-tariff barriers they need to be breached. Reforms are needed such as better infrastructure, land-labor reforms and lesser regulations.
Other important factors to attract FDI will be labour issues, electricity supply issues and electricity rates, the logistics, the infrastructure scenario and the large domestic market of India.
FDI in manufacturing in India is not much, it is mainly concentrated in services and e-commerce sector.
Some more domestic reforms are needed to promote FDI in manufacturing before ably competing against countries like Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia etc
Matching up to the 6 key themes: India’s performance in regards to attracting FDI will depend on how these five selling points match with the 6 key themes that WEF has outlined, namely: Economy, Ecology, Technology, Society, Geopolitics and Industry. These factors are interlinked and India needs to take advantage of this.`
Focussing on exports: Almost 40% of the world’s GDP is contributed by the US and China. The simple formula to increase GDP of a country is to increase consumption, plus private investments, plus government expenditures, plus exports, minus imports.
For India, to grow fast and achieve the objective of a $5 trillion economy it needs to step up exports and get a bigger share in the world exports.
Government incentives: All that India can achieve will depend on the various incentives being offered by the government, especially the recent corporate tax reduction.
Parameters like ease of doing business, resolution of contractual disputes etc. will matter prominently.
India has moved 14 places to be 63rd among 190 nations in the World Bank’s ease of doing business ranking.
However, India’s contract enforcement rank 2018 was163 out of 190 countries, the lowest among G-20 countries.

Best Way Forward

India needs to put in place the policies of data localisation and cross border data flows.
Also India will have to make a clear case for special and differential treatment for its coastal fishermen who carry out fishing as a source of livelihood rather than for commercial purposes unlike Korea, Japan and China.

India needs to support multilateralism and multilateral institutions. It needs to work on its perception and project a confident image of itself in the world economic scenario assuring the investors of its economic stability.

WORLD WIDE FUND FOR NATURE

The World Wide Fund for Nature is an international non-governmental organization founded in 1961 that works in the field of wilderness preservation and the reduction of human impact on the environment. It was formerly named the World Wildlife Fund, which remains its official name in Canada and the United States.

The World Wide Fund for Nature or WWF is an international non-profit organisation dedicated to the preservation and conservation of nature and its different species. It is the world’s biggest conservation organisation. It supports more than 1000 projects all over the world.

World Wide Fund for Nature History

Founded on 29th April 1961.
Its precursor organisation was the Conservation Foundation.
Its original name was World Wildlife Fund.

World Wide Fund For Nature Mission Statement

“To conserve nature and reduce the most pressing threats to the diversity of life on Earth.”

WWF Work

WWF works in the areas of climate, food, forests, fresh water, oceans and wildlife primarily.
It runs several projects in various fields in partnership with people, bodies and governments worldwide.
In species conservation, they focus on tigers, elephants, gorillas, giant pandas, sea turtles, polar bears, rhinos and whales.
Through its various projects, the organisation aims to check the degradation of earth’s natural environment and create a future in which human beings live in harmony with nature.
Campaigns launched by WWF include Earth Hour and Debt-for-Nature Swap.
Marine Stewardship Council(MSC) — independent non-profit organization which sets a standard for sustainable fishing
Healthy GrownPotato — eco-brand that provides high-quality, sustainably grown, packaged, and shipped potatoes to consumers by leveraging integrated pest management(IPM) farming practices on large scale farms.

Living Planet Report

The famous ‘Living Planet Report’ (started in 1998) is published by the WWF every two year in which the health of the planet and the impact of human activities on nature are talked about. It is based on the Living Planet Index and the calculations of ecological footprints.

Objectives:

Conserving the world’s biological diversity
Ensuring that the use of renewable natural resources is sustainable
Promoting the reduction of pollution and wasteful consumption.

WMO

World Meteorological Organization

The World Meteorological Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for promoting international cooperation on atmospheric science, climatology, hydrology and geophysics.

Headquarters location: Geneva, Switzerland

Founded: 23 March 1950

Parent organization: United Nations Economic and Social Council

Formation: 23 March 1950; 70 years ago

Heads: Gerhard Adrian, Petteri Taalas

Secretary general: Petteri Taalas

Established in 1950, the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) is an intergovernmental organisation that originated from the International Meteorological Organisation (IMO).

The International Meteorological Organisation (IMO) had its roots from the Vienna International Meteorological Congress of 1873.
It became a specialised agency of the UN in 1951.
The United Nations Economic and Social Council is the parent organization of the UN’s WMO.
WMO celebrated its 70th Anniversary in 2020.

WMO Members

The WMO has 193 Member States and 6 Member Territories.

WMO Publications/Reports

The World Meteorological Organisation publishes an annual report on the status of the World Climate. This report will provide detailed information on temperatures at the local, national and global levels along with extreme weather events.

The WMO report also provides information on long term climate change indicators. These indicators include the rise in sea levels, the extent of sea ice and concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
Other reports published by the WMO are:
- Status of World Climate
- Greenhouse Gas Bulletin

World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) Functions

Functions of the World Meteorological Organisation can be stated as:

Coordinating activities of National Meteorological and Hydrological Services in the member countries.
1. These activities are important since they provide basic climate, weather and water services to the population in need whenever they need it.
Providing a guarantee of publishing the statistics and observation of Meteorology and Hydrology.

1. This data is further implemented in various aspects like agriculture and water management, shipping, aviation, etc.

The WMO also encourages R&D in Meteorology and Hydrology.

1. This is beneficial for reducing different weather impacts and hazards due to climate.
2. This can be achieved by maintaining a consistent and reliable forecast.
3. A reliable forecast is necessary for early warning systems on storms like cyclones, tornadoes, and other extreme events like flooding and droughts.
4. Predicting the locust swarms and transport of various pollutants is another responsibility of the WMO.
5. Pollutants like volcanic ash, toxic nuclear substances are all hazardous to human health. If their transport is detected early, various health hazards can be avoided.

World Meteorological Organisation and India

India is a member of the WMO since 1949. India’s permanent representative to the organisation is the head (DGM – Director-General of Meteorology) of the IMD.

The WMO has applauded India’s IMD’s remarkable accuracy in the forecasts and updates on Cyclone Amphan, which led to a significant saving of lives in India. The IMD’s predictions help in early preparedness for cyclones not only in India but also in other countries, like Bangladesh, Singapore and Bahrain.

The WMO had written a letter to the IMD appreciating its work with respect to predictions of cyclone genesis, intensity, track, landfall time and point, including related adverse weather conditions like rainfall wind, storm surge, etc. with a lead period of over three days.

UNODC

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime

Headquarters location: Vienna, Austria

Founded: 1997

Parent organization: United Nations Secretariat

Head: Ghada Waly since 2020; Egypt

The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime is a United Nations office that was established in 1997 as the Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention by combining the United Nations International Drug Control Program and the Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Division in the United Nations Office at Vienna.

The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) was established in order to make the world a place without the dangers of Drug Abuseand the crimes following it. UNODC also works to improve crime prevention and to assist with criminal justice reform in a number of countries.

It was renamed to its current name in 2002.

It was established chiefly to aid the United Nations in addressing the issues of illicit drug trafficking, drug abuse, prevention of crime and criminal justice, political corruption and international terrorism, in a coordinated and comprehensive manner.

It is also the chief UN body for delivering legal and technical assistance to prevent terrorism.

The UNODC also works in disseminating information about the dangers of drug abuse.

The UNODC releases the World Drug Report annually. The report gives valuable information relating to drug abuse worldwide, the trends in the production and use of illicit drugs of various types, etc.

UNODC and India

UNODC has a presence in India since 1987. The nodal ministries are:

Finance (Revenue Department)
Home
Health and Family Welfare
Social Justice and Empowerment
Women and Child Development
Overseas Indian Affairs

Geographically, India is very close to the Golden Crescent and the Golden Triangle, the superhighways of the Asian drug trade

The Golden Crescent overlaps between the mountain ranges of Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan whose mountainous peripheries give the network its eponymous name.
The Golden Triangle is located in the area where the borders of Thailand, Myanmar and Laos meet at the confluence of the Ruak and Mekong Rivers.
It was regarded as one of the largest producers of opium in the world since the 1950s until it was overtaken by the Golden Crescent in the early 21st century.

The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) Report said that India is one of the major hubs of trade for Illicit Drugs. The report also mentioned the global trend of purchasing drugs over the internet with the help of platforms available on the Dark Web.

These uncontrolled trades have spread across the South Asian region with India being at the forefront of it. With the use of Cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, it becomes difficult to track the trade and contain it.
India is also a transit point for opiates produced illegally, in particular heroin.
The report has identified more than 1,000 drug listings from India published across 50 online crypto-market platforms.

COVID-19 and Drug Trade

The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) has released a report titled ‘Synthetic Drugs in East and Southeast Asia’.

Details:

According to the report, movement restrictions owing to the COVID-19 pandemic may lead to an initial statistical reduction in drug seizures, but without a real change in terms of supply in the East and Southeast Asia region.
The UNODC said a large proportion of methamphetamine, the main synthetic drug of concern in the region, was manufactured, trafficked and consumed without the need for globalised supply chains.

Colombo Declaration

In 2016, 18 littoral states adopted a resolution to make the Indian Ocean Region (IOR), a Drug-Free Zone. It was held at a meeting in Colombo, Sri Lanka and the declaration came to be known as the Colombo Declaration.

The declaration emphasizes the need for cooperation amongst the coastal areas more closely in order to share information in narcotic drug trafficking, provide mutual legal assistance and enforce maritime law.

IFAD

International Fund For Agricultural Development

Founded: December 1977, Rome, Italy

Parent organization: United Nations

The International Fund for Agricultural Development is an international financial institution and a specialized agency of the United Nations that works to address poverty and hunger in rural areas of developing countries.
- The IFAD works with rural people allowing them to enhance their food security, improve nutrition and raise their incomes.
- It also helps people to expand their businesses.
- The organization is an outcome of the World Food Conference of 1974.
- It is headquartered in Rome and headed by a President.
- It has 177 member countries.
- It works with marginalized and vulnerable groups such as farmers with small holdings, foresters, pastoralists, fishermen and small scale entrepreneurs by giving them disaster preparedness, access to weather information, technology transfer and social learning.
- IFAD brings out the Rural Development Report every year.The IFAD is an international financial institution working in the field of poverty eradication in the rural areas of developing countries. It is a specialized United Nations agency created in 1977 engaged in providing grants and loans with low interest for allied projects.
IFAD Objectives
The objectives of the IFAD are three-fold:
1. To increase the productive capacity of poor people.
2. To increase benefits for them from market participation.
3. To strengthen the environmental sustainability & climate resilience of their economic activities.
IFAD and India
IFAD has been in India since 1979. In India, the organization focusses on enhancing the access of poor people in rural areas to technological advancement in agriculture, financial services, natural resources and value chains.
- It also works in sharing knowledge & learnings on nutrition security and poverty alleviation.
- The focus in India is on tribal communities, smallholder farmers, women, scheduled castes, etc.
- IFAD is located in New Delhi.
- IFAD Focus areas in India:
- - Rural poverty
  - Agriculture
  - Tribal development
  - Women’s empowerment
- The nodal agency for the IFAD in India is the Department of Economic Affairs, Finance Ministry, GOI.

UN HABITAT

United Nations Human Settlement Programme

Headquarters location: Nairobi, Kenya

Head: Maimunah Mohd Sharif

Founded: 1978

Parent organization: United Nations

Abbreviation: UN-Habitat

The United Nations Human Settlements Programme is the United Nations programme for human settlements and sustainable urban development. It was established in 1978 as an outcome of the first United Nations Conference on Human Settlements and Sustainable Urban Development held in Vancouver, Canada, in 1976.

UN-Habitat

The United Nations Human Settlements Programme is the United Nations programme for human settlements and sustainable urban development.
It was established in 1978 as an outcome of the First UN Conference on Human Settlements and Sustainable Urban Development (Habitat I)held in Vancouver, Canada, in 1976.
UN-Habitat maintains its headquarters at the United Nations Office at Nairobi, Kenya.
It is mandated by the United Nations General Assembly to promote socially and environmentally sustainable towns and cities with the goal of providing adequate shelter for all.
It is a member of the United Nations Development Group. The mandate of UN-Habitat derives from the Habitat Agenda, adopted by the United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II) in Istanbul, Turkey, in 1996.

The twin goals of the Habitat Agenda are:

Adequate shelter for all.
The development of sustainable human settlements in an urbanizing world
India is elected to the Executive Board of the first UN-Habitat Assembly at the Plenary Session of the Assembly being held in Nairobi.
The theme: for the UN-Habitat Assembly is “Innovation for Better Quality of Life in Cities and Communities”.
UN-Habitat: is the United Nations programme working towards a better urban future. Its mission is to promote socially and environmentally sustainable human settlements development and the achievement of adequate shelter for all.
Mandated by the UN General Assembly in 1978 to address the issues of urban growth, it is a knowledgeable institution on urban development processes and understands the aspirations of cities and their residents.

The outcome of the UN-Habitat Assembly

Contributions: of more than $152 million towards making cities more inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable, by the member countries.
Communities, cities or towns that improve their solid waste management and reduce their waste management expenditure will be publicly recognised as ‘Waste-Wise Cities’.
The initiative asks communities, cities and towns around the world to “rethink, reduce, recycle, refuse and reuse waste”.
The strategic plan of the UN human settlements programme for the period 2020–2025 is presented. The plan aims to advance sustainable urbanisation as a driver of development and peace, to improve living conditions for all.
Participating nations also presented their statements on efforts to promote the New Urban Agenda (NUA)and sustainable urban development.
Asian and African countries like India, Pakistan, Indonesia, Rwanda and Uruguay presented an overview of the national policies and practices.
Venezuela suggested considering social housing as an important public good.
Korea stressed the potential of artificial intelligence and virtual reality technology to address urban problems

In India, UN-Habitat is devising an integrated and demand-driven approach that combines refining urban planning and design frameworks, providing infrastructure upgrading policy and technical guidance, implementing pilot projects for learning-by-doing, and mainstreaming innovations through testing technology solutions to transform India’s urban landscape. UN-Habitat interventions are focused under following broad pillars –

Safe, Inclusive, Resilient and Sustainable Cities and Regions: Improved policy frameworks focused on inclusive planning and sustainable development through effective and participatory planning instruments at the city and regional scale.
Affordable, Green, and Resilient Housing Environment: Design tools and mechanisms to promote social housing with a focus on energy efficiency and effective waste management strategies.
Promote Safe, Well Planned and Serviced Neighborhoods: Promote secure and safe livelihoods to enable sustained economic and social mobility. Integrate smart technology and participatory models to improve service delivery for all at the neighborhood scale.
Accountable and Efficient Urban Governance: Strengthen planning, financing, service delivery and monitoring mechanisms to ensure sustained universal access to basic services and resilient livelihoods.
Knowledge Systematization and Learning: Develop capacities and share technical expertise to empower local city authorities to effectively and efficiently mainstream SDG-11 and its linkages in the national and local urban agenda the needs and expectations of citizens.

UN WOMEN

Head: Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka

Headquarters: New York, New York, United States

Founder: United Nations General Assembly

Founded: July 2010

Official languages: 4: English; French;

Formation: 2 July 2010; 10 years ago

The United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women, also known as UN Women, is a United Nations entity working for the empowerment of women. UN Women became operational in January 2011.

UN Women is the wing of the United Nations that engages in the field of women empowerment and gender equality. The entity was formed to accelerate the progress of achieving the needs of women and girls all over the world.

UN Women works with the members of the UN in their march towards achieving gender equality.

It works with governments and civil society to come up with policies, laws, programmes and services required to ensure that global standards set to achieve gender equality are effectively implemented, and women and girls worldwide are actually benefitted.

UN Women works on four strategic priorities, namely,
- Governance systems facilitate women to lead, participate in and actually benefit them.
- Women have economic autonomy, income security and decent work.
- Women and girls are not affected by any form of violence against them.
- Women and girls contribute to and have greater influence in building sustainable peace and resilience, and benefit equally from the prevention of natural disasters and conflicts and humanitarian action.

UN Women works to place gender equality as a fundamental ideal to the Sustainable Development Goals. It works for a more inclusive world.
The governing body of UN Women is its Executive Board. It governs the operational activities and provides operational policy guidelines to UN Women.
The Executive Director of UN Women is Ms. Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka.
UN Women is headquartered in New York.

UN Women Role

The chief roles of UN Women are:

Supporting intergovernmental bodies (like the Commission on the Status of Women) to formulate global standards, policies and norms.
Assisting member states to implement these policies, providing financial and technical support when requested, and forming effective partnerships with civil society.
Leading and coordinating the UN system’s work on gender equality.
To help Member States to implement these standards, standing ready to provide suitable technical and financial support to those countries that request it, and to forge effective partnerships with civil society.
To hold the UN system accountable for its own commitments on gender equality, including regular monitoring of system-wide progress.

The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) created UN Women in 2010 by merging four parts of the UN system that worked in the field of women empowerment and gender equality. These were:

Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW)
International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW)
Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and Advancement of Women (OSAGI)
United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM)

Why Gender Equality is Important

Gender equality is important not only as a basic human right but also because it has several socio-economic ramifications. Yes, it is to be achieved because it is an end in itself. However, there are several good reasons why countries and organizations should push for gender equality and a more inclusive setting. Empowering women fuels thriving economies, spurring productivity and growth. In many regions, women are denied decent work, suffer from gender pay gaps and occupational segregation. Not only do they suffer from violence and discrimination, but they are also denied basic healthcare and education. They also do not find adequate representation in political and economic decision-making.

UN Women and India

The UN Women’s office in New Delhi is a multi-country office of the entity for four countries namely, India, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and the Maldives.

FATF

Financial Action Task Force

Headquarters: Paris, France

President: Marcus Pleyer

Founder: Group of Seven

Founded: 1989

Purpose: Combat money laundering and terrorism financing

Membership: 39

is an intergovernmental organisation founded in 1989 on the initiative of the G7 to develop policies to combat money laundering. The FATF Secretariat is housed at the OECD headquarters in Paris

The Financial Action Task Force (FATF) is an inter-governmental organization established to set standards and promote effective implementation of legal, regulatory and operational measures for combating money laundering, terrorist financing and other related threats to the integrity of the international financial system. It was formed in 1989 by the G7 Summit which was held in Paris. The FATF is really a policy-making body that works with governments to bring about national legislation and regulatory reforms in these areas.

The FATF has developed a series of recommendations that have become global standards for fighting money laundering and terror financing, as well as the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. The first set of recommendations was issued in 1990 followed by revisions in 1996, 2001, 2003, and lastly in 2012.
The organization monitors its member countries on the progress they have made in implementing reform measures and reviews their counter-measures to money laundering and terror financing.
The decision-making body of FATF is called the FATF Plenary. It meets three times annually.
The organization has included even combating terror financing among its objectives after the September 11 terror attacks on the USA in 2001.

FATF Blacklist

Officially called the “Non-Cooperative Countries or Territories (NCCTs), the FATF Blacklist is a list of countries which the FATF considers to be non-cooperative in the international fight against terrorist financing and money laundering. This list is regularly updated, with countries being either deleted off the list or new countries being added to the list. It is to be noted that some names are on the list not because of their non-cooperative stance towards fighting this menace, but because they lack the necessary infrastructure and mechanisms to engage in this fight.

FATF Countries (FATF Members)

As of January 2021, there are 39 member countries in the FATF. India is a member of the organization since June 2010. It had earlier acquired ‘Observer’ status at FATF in 2006.

FATF Observer – Indonesia. There are many other Observer organizations and Associate Members.

The current President of the FATF is Dr Marcus Pleyer of Germany who assumed the position of President on 1st July 2020. Its Executive Secretary is David Lewis of the United Kingdom.

Roles and functions:

Initially it was established to examine and develop measures to combat money laundering.
In October 2001, the FATF expanded its mandate to incorporate efforts to combat terrorist financing, in addition to money laundering.
In April 2012, it added efforts to counter the financing of proliferation of weapons of mass destruction.

Objectives:

To set standards and promote effective implementation of legal, regulatory and operational measures for combating money laundering, terrorist financing and other related threats to the integrity of the international financial system.

What is blacklist and grey list?

Black List: Countries knowns as Non-Cooperative Countries or Territories (NCCTs) are put in the blacklist. These countries support terror funding and money laundering activities. The FATF revises the blacklist regularly, adding or deleting entries.

Grey List: Countries that are considered safe haven for supporting terror funding and money laundering are put in the FATF grey list. This inclusion serves as a warning to the country that it may enter the blacklist.

Considered in the grey list may face:

Economic sanctions from IMF, World Bank, ADB.
Problem in getting loans from IMF, World Bank, ADB and other countries.
Reduction in international trade.
International boycott.

Consequences of being in the FATF grey list:

Economic sanctions from IMF, World Bank, ADB
Problem in getting loans from IMF, World Bank, ADB and other countries
Reduction in international trade
International boycott

Pakistan and FATF

Pakistan, which continues to remain on the “grey list” of FATF, had earlier been given the deadline till the June to ensure compliance with the 27-point action plan against terror funding networks.
It has been under the FATF’s scanner since June 2018, when it was put on the Grey List for terror financing and money laundering risks.
FATF and its partners such as the Asia Pacific Group (APG) are reviewing Pakistan’s processes, systems, and weaknesses on the basis of a standard matrix for anti-money laundering (AML) and combating the financing of terrorism (CFT) regime.

European Union

Area: 4.476 million km²

Headquarters location: Brussels, Belgium

Founded: 1 November 1993, Maastricht, Netherlands

Members: Germany, France, Italy, Poland, Sweden, Spain, and Ireland etc (total 28)

Founders: Germany, France, Italy, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg

Awards: Nobel Peace Prize, Princess of Asturias Award for Concord, Bambi – Millennium Award

The European Union is a group of 28 countries that operate as a cohesive economic and political block. The EU grew out of a desire to form a single European political entity to end centuries of warfare among European countries that culminated with World War II and decimated much of the continent.

The EU has developed an internal single marketthrough a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states in matters, where members have agreed to act as one.

European Union is an international organisation consisting of European Countries, which was formed in 1993. It came into force after the signing of the Maastricht Treaty by 28 countries. The Maastricht Treaty is also known as the Treaty of the European Union (TEU). Maastricht is a city located in the Netherlands. The Maastricht Treaty was amended thrice. The amendments are listed below.

Treaty of Amsterdam (1997)
Treaty of Nice (2001)
Treaty of Lisbon (2007)

European Union – Objectives

The objectives of forming European Union are listed below.

To increase political cooperation
To enhance economic integration by creating a single currency the EURO.
Unified security and foreign policy
Common citizenship Rights
Enhanced cooperation in the areas of judiciary, immigration and asylum.

European Union was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in 2012.

European Union – Origins

Following the aftermath of World War II. European leaders realised that only large-scale integration would be an antidote to the extreme nationalism that was the cause of the global war. Winston Churchill went further and advocated the emergence of a United States of Europe. The 1948 Hague Congress was a pivotal moment in European federal history, as it led to the creation of the European Movement International and of the College of Europe, where Europe’s future leaders would live and study together. Thy would lead to the founding of the following unions which would eventually evolve into the European Union:

European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) – Treaty of Paris 1951
European Economic Community (EEC) – Treaty of Rome 1957

The original 6 members of European Communities were

France
Italy
Netherlands
Belgium
West Germany
Luxembourg

European Union – Brexit

On January 31, 2020, the United Kingdom (U.K) formally left the European Union. U.K is the first country to leave the E.U. The exit was in accordance with Article 50 of the Treaty of the European Union.

European Union – Decision-Making Bodies

The 7 important decision-making bodies of the European Union are listed below.

European Parliament
European Council
European Commission
Council of the European Union
Court of Justice of the European Union
European Central Bank
European Court of Auditors.

European Parliament

It is one of the 3 legislative institutions of the E.U.
On the basis of proportional representation, Members of the European Parliament are elected by European Union citizens every 5 years.
There are 705 Members of the European Parliament (MEP) in the European Parliament.

European Council (E.C)

Political direction for the European Council is given by the European Council.
European Council was established as an informal summit in 1975. However, with the enactment of the Treaty of Lisbon EC was formalised as an institution in 2009.

European Commission

European Commission acts as the executive arm of the European Union. It is responsible for the day to day functioning of the European Union.
European Commission is considered as the guardian of the treaties signed.
It also has legislative powers like proposing laws for debate.

Council of the European Union

It is made up of government ministers from each member state.
It has executive powers like addressing common foreign and security policy.

European Union – Economy

E.U has a share of 14% of the global Gross Domestic Product (PPP).
In 2020, the combined GDP of E.U is $ 20 trillion.
E.U also has representation in the World Trade Organization (W.T.O)
19 member states of E.U are part of the Eurozone.
Euro is used as the common currency in the Eurozone.
Euro is the 2nd most traded currency in the world.
Euro is the 2nd largest reserve currency in the world.
As of 2010 data, out of the top 500 largest corporations in the world, 161 of them had their Headquarters in the European Union.

Mekong Ganga Cooperation (MGC)

The Mekong–Ganga Cooperation was established on November 10, 2000, at Vientiane, Laos at the First MGC Ministerial Meeting. It comprises six member countries, namely India, Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. The four areas of cooperation are tourism, culture, education, and transportation.

Mekong-Ganga Cooperation is an initiative aiming to facilitate closer connections between its 6 member countries that share the Ganga river and Mekong river basins.

Mekong Ganga Cooperation Objectives

The MGC aims at developing closer relations and better understanding among the member-countries to enhance friendship, solidarity, and cooperation; facilitating inter-state movement and transit; transport of goods and people in the region; creating necessary infrastructural facilities in the Ganga-Mekong basin areas, and encouraging active participation in poverty eradication.

Mekong Ganga Cooperation Structure

The institutional structure of the MGC is yet to evolve properly. According to a preliminary concept paper approved by the MGC, Ministerial Meetings would be held annually back-to-back with the Annual Ministerial Meetings (AMMs). The chairmanship will be rotated in alphabetical order. The country which serves as chair shall act as the Secretariat to carry out coordination and implementation of the Cooperation plan.

Mekong – Ganga Cooperation Working Mechanism

The working mechanism of Mekong – Ganga Cooperation consists of the Annual Ministerial Meetings, Senior Officials Meetings (SOM), and 5 working groups. These 5 working groups look after the cooperative areas of MGC. They are as follows:

Working group of Education
Working group of Tourism
Working group of Culture
Working group of Plans of Action
Working group of Communication

Mekong Ganga Cooperation Activities

The inaugural meet in November 2000 identified tourism, culture, and the development of human resources as the first steps on a road that will lead to greater networking of communications, transport, and infrastructure development.
In the tourism field, the MGC is committed to conducting strategic studies for joint marketing, launching the Mekong-Ganga Tourism Investment Guide, facilitating the travel of people in the region, expanding multimodal communication as well as transportation links to improve travel and tourism and promoting cultural-religious package tours.
In the field of infrastructure development, member-countries are committed to developing transport networks, especially the “East-West Corridor” and the “Trans-Asian Highway”.
When completed, the Asian highway project is expected to link Singapore with New Delhi in South Asia via Kuala Lumpur, Ho Chi Minh City, Phnom Penh, Bangkok, Vientiane, Chiang Mal, Yangon, Mandalay, Kalemyo, Tamu, Dhaka, and Kolkata.
Other areas of cooperation include air services and linkages, and IT infrastructure and networks.
In the field of culture, the grouping is to undertake joint research in the field of music, dance, and theatre forms and conduct roundtables for writers, journalists, and experts in various fields such as literature, health, women’s empowerment, performing arts and nutrition.
Focus is also to be given to the conservation, preservation, and protection of heritage sites and artefacts.
Cooperation is also envisaged in the establishment of networking and twinning arrangements among universities in the region.
The translation of classics of MGC countries into other MGC languages.
Participation of member-countries in book fairs on a commercial basis.

MERCOSUR

Mercosuris an economic and political bloc comprising Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay. Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, and Suriname are associate members. Its purpose is to promote free trade and the fluid movement of goods, people, and currency.
Mercosur is a sub-regional bloc of South American Countries.
Its purpose is to promote free trade and the fluid movement of goods, people, and currency
Its full members are Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and Venezuela.
Its associate countries are Bolivia, Chile, Peru, Colombia, Ecuador and Suriname
The Mercusor trading bloc was established in 1991
Headquarter: Montevideo (Uruguay)
Brazil has asked India to expand its commercial and multilateral footprints in South America by expanding its relation with MERCOSUR

Venezuela’s membership was revoked.

Venezuela was blocked after it failed to comply with its commitments given when it had joined the group in 2012. It also failed to meet December 1, 2016 deadline to adopt certain standards and rules required for membership of the bloc. The bloc considered Venezuela as burden for the economic group due to its poor performance of the economy, colliding with the goals of the bloc. It is also suffering from broken economic system (world’s highest inflation and crumbling currency), corruption problem and is close to civil unrest. Since 2015, tensions between Venezuela and its Mercosur partners had exacerbated. Earlier in 2016, the bloc had stopped Venezuela from assuming the rotating presidency.

Preferential Trade Agreement Between
India And MERCOSUR (PTA)

MERCOSUR is a trading bloc in Latin America comprising Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay. MERCOSUR was formed in 1991 with the objective of facilitating the free movement of goods, services, capital and people among the four member countries. It is the third largest integrated market after the European Union (EU), North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).

A Framework Agreement had been signed between India and MERCOSUR on 17th June 2003 at Asuncion, Paraguay. The aim of this Framework Agreement was to create conditions and mechanisms for negotiations in the first stage, by granting reciprocal tariff preferences and in the second stage, to negotiate a free trade area between the two parties in conformity with the rules of the World Trade Organisation.

As a follow up to the Framework Agreement, a Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA) was signed in New Delhi on January 25, 2004. The aim of this Preferential Trade Agreement is to expand and strengthen the existing relations between MERCOSUR and India and promote the expansion of trade by granting reciprocal fixed tariff preferences with the ultimate objective of creating a free trade area between the parties.

The India-MERCOSUR PTA provides for five Annexes. These five Annexes had been finalized during six rounds of negotiations in order to operationalise the PTA. These have been signed between the two sides on March 19, 2005, upon the conclusion of G-20 Meeting in New Delhi. The five finalized Annexes are following.

Annex I to the PTA – Offer List of MERCOSUR for tariff concession on Indian products in MERCOSUR. It contains 452 products.
Annex II to the PTA – Offer List of India for tariff concession on MERCOSUR’s products in India. It contains 450 products.
Annex III to the PTA – Rules of Origin
Annex IV to the PTA – Safeguard Measures
Annex V to the PTA – Dispute Settlement Procedure (DSP)
The major products covered in Indian offer list are meat and meat products, organic & inorganic chemicals, dyes & pigments, raw hides and skins, leather articles, wool, cotton yarn, glass and glassware, articles of iron and steel, machinery items, electrical machinery and equipment’s, optical, photographic & cinematographic apparatus
The major product groups covered in the offer list of MERCOSUR are food preparations, organic chemicals, pharmaceuticals, essential oils, plastics & articles, rubber and rubber products, tools and implements, machinery items, electrical machinery and equipment’s.
India – MERCOSUR PTA came into effect from 1^stJune, 2009.

International Solar Alliance

The International Solar Alliance (ISA) is an initiative proposed by our Prime Minister Narendra Modi and was launched by him at the UN Climate Change Conference in Paris along with the President of France. It was launched on 30th November 2015.
PM Modi said, “The Sun is the source of all energy. The world must turn to solar, the power of our future”. It is an alliance of the “sunshine countries” i.e., the countries lying in between the two tropics – Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn with an objective of efficient utilization of the solar energy.
The alliance was formed with the intent to reduce the dependence on non-renewable sources of energy like fossil fuels. Modi referred to the sun-rich countries as “Suryaputras” and spoke about the huge potential of these countries to make use of the abundant natural resource, solar energy.

The International Solar Alliance is a group of nations that lies within the Tropics (Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn) and receive sunshine for more than 300 days.

It is a platform for the collaboration of sunshine countries in the domain of energy security.

Why International Solar Alliance?

The energy that comes from the Sun in a day is enough for the entire globe to use for a whole year, however, we are not able to capture the entire energy that comes.
Most of the sunshine countries are poor and the least developing. Hence, solar power becomes critical for energy security.
The underlying rationale for ISA is to “ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all”,
It also plans to increase the share of renewable energy substantially by 2030. By 2030, it envisages enhancing international cooperation to facilitate access to clean energy research and technology, including renewable energy, energy efficiency, and advanced and cleaner fossil-fuel technology.
Developing solar projects in silos is not financially viable, despite the involvement of prominent financial institutions such as AIIB, World Bank, NDB and private and public investments towards this.
Absence of established renewable energy policy.
There is no proper ecosystem that creates a willingness to buy and set up renewable energy; there is no proper integration method with conventional energy.

Hence, the focus of ISA will be on policy, ecosystem, and integration concerning solar energy.

Financing options of ISA

The private sector is willing to contribute $500 million and the public sector another $500 million. This gives ISA financial sustainability.
ISA has the potential to popularise new financial mechanisms that are popular now in India such as masala bonds as well as green solar bonds, for raising cheap money in other nations also.

What is India’s Role in ISA?

India will be one of the largest markets and its domestic policy (to build 100 gigawatts) has sent signals to developers and financiers.
The country has committed an operational solar power capacity of 100 GW by March 2022. This initiative could be a shot in the arm for India’s energy security.

Headquarters of ISA will be in India
Interim Secretariat of the ISA in National Institute of Solar Energy (NISE), Gwalpahari, Gurgaon, has been inaugurated
India has committed a corpus of 100 crores
India will also give secretarial assistance of 225 crores for the next five years
The government of India has offered training support for ISA member countries at NISE and also support for demonstration projects for solar home lighting, solar pumps for farmers, and other solar applications.

What are the advantages of ISA?

It will give the desired push towards clean energy when the world is reeling under the impact of climate change due to pollution from energy generating plants like coal etc.
The Alliance has a 24×7 Solar Cyber Centre. This will give open access to all nations for advice and information on many projects and financial innovation.
The Alliance can also play an advocacy role in asking the financial institutions to offer a part of their lending for solar energy. This is like what the Reserve Bank did in India – up to 15 crore investment in the field of renewable energy is a priority sector lending. And, up to 10 lakh is a priority sector lending for rooftop solar panels.

Advantages for India:

- This could position India as an energy leader of sun-rich developing countries
- It showcases India as a strong contender internationally and could generate job opportunities of a global nature.
- The ISA could be the beginning of more macro-level analysis and discussions of international energy markets, rather than just focussing on Indian policies or domestic policies.
- India lacks adequate infrastructure for solar energy. Further, the cost of solar power is not yet commercially viable. To reach its desired target of 100GW of solar power, ISA can help fund the capacity addition and make solar power commercially viable.
- It can also adopt best practices in renewable energy
ISA is the first organization in the world, which will have a sole focus on solar energy, unlike IEA (International Energy Agency), IRENA (International Renewable Energy Agency) and REEP (Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership), which work on other renewable sources of energy as well.
The United Nations is a partner for ISA, unlike in other organizations.
ISA is tilted more towards action rather than only scholarly research and theory building.

Possible Challenges:

The Alliance wants to create a forum where an exchange of experiences can occur to deploy solar energy while agreeing that access to energy technology and finance are the biggest obstacles in achieving energy security.
In several international processes, the ultimate objective lies neglected because funds have been utilized in finding consensus in conferences. Therefore, ISA should be careful about not going on that path.
There could be disagreements on the business models like- from where to procure components and satisfying competing claims of domestic and international players could be a challenge.
Further, there is no clarity on a business model about how it can help make solar power reach “grid parity”.

Road map to the Future:

India could potentially change that by making all ISA programs pointed and crisp such as the idea of linking France’s funds with PM Modi’s Smart Cities Programme to increase solar energy in public lighting in the proposed smart cities.
Funding for capacity addition should be made on a priority basis.
Successful models of a clean energy system must move away from fossil fuels (no matter how slowly) towards renewables. Once subsidies are slowly removed from fossil fuels, that revenue should be used to subsidize renewable energy in a fashion similar to a feed-in-tariff.

The feed-in-tariff should also be eventually removed once solar prices become competitive enough, failing which the tariff becomes counter-productive and a fiscal burden.

African Union

The African Union is a continental union consisting of 55 member states located on the continent of Africa. The AU was announced in the Sirte Declaration in Sirte, Libya, on 9 September 1999, calling for the establishment of the African Union.

African Union is a continental body which consists of 55 states belonging to the African continent. The African Union was launched as a successor to the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) in 2002.

Origin of African Union

OAU was established on 25th May 1963, when 32 heads of independent African States signed the OUA Charter in Addis Ababa Ethiopia on May 1963 for the establishment of Organisation of African Unity (OAU). This initiative was taken as a pan-Asian vision for a united and free Africa with a major focus on the freedom, justice, equality and dignity of the African people. The main objective of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) was to eradicate the African states from colonisation and to promote unity and solidarity.

On 9th September 1999, the Heads of State and Government of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) called for the establishment of an African Union through the Sirte Declaration to enable the role of Africa in the global economy. Therefore, the African Union (AU) was officially launched in July 2002 in Durban, South Africa.

Visions of African Union (AU)

Re-launching of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) as the African Union was done to realise the potential of Africa to fight against colonisation with a major focus towards increased cooperation and integration of African states for economic development.

AU is guided by its vision of a peaceful, prosperous and an integrated Africa representing a dynamic force in the global economy and is driven by its own citizens.

Objectives of African Union (AU)

The objectives of AU were laid by the Constitutive Act of the African Union and the Protocol on Amendments to the Constitutive Act of the African Union.

Achieving greater unity and solidarity among the African countries and the people.
Defending the territorial integrity, sovereignty and independence of the 55 Member States.
Accelerating the political as well as the socio-economic integrity of the African continent.
Promote and defend African common positions on issues of interest to the continent and its peoples
Encouraging international cooperation and promoting peace, security, and stability of the continent
Promoting the popular participation and governance of the continent including democratic principles and institutions
Development and promotion of common policies related to trade, defence and foreign relations strengthening its negotiating positions.
Invite and encourage the full participation of the African Diaspora as an important part of our Continent, in the building of the African Union.
Protect human rights in accordance with the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights.
To provide sustainable development of the continent at the social, economic and cultural levels.
Development of the continent through the advancement in the field of science and technology.

Arctic Council

The Arctic Council is a high-level intergovernmental forum that addresses issues faced by the Arctic governments and the indigenous people of the Arctic.

The Arctic Council was formally established in 1996 as the leading intergovernmental forum to promote cooperation amongst countries in the region and it involves the Arctic inhabitants and indigenous people on common issues of sustainable development and environment protection.

The Arctic Council was created with the signing of the Ottawa Declaration on 19 September 1996 in Canada. India got the observer status at the Kiruna Ministerial Meeting in 2013.

As per the Ottawa declaration, the following 8 countries form the Arctic States:

Canada
Denmark
Finland
Iceland
Norway
Russia
Sweden
United States

What is the goal of the Arctic Council?

The main goal of Arctic Council is to promote various levels of cooperation, coordination among the Arctic States, indigenous communities and other Arctic inhabitants on the common Arctic to discuss and resolve issues on sustainable development and environmental protection in the Arctic.

The major focus areas of the Arctic Council are

Environment and climate change
Biodiversity
Oceans
The indigenous Arctic people

The Ottawa Declaration explicitly excludes any military security and the Arctic Council is a forum with no enforcement powers. The projects and work is sponsored and carried out by member states or other entities.

Role of Arctic Council Observers

The status of Observers is only applicable for the non-Arctic states, Inter-governmental and Inter-Parliamentary Organisations, Global and Regional; and Non-Governmental Organisations that the Council determines can contribute to its work.

India also is one of the observers of the Arctic Council. Given below is the role of the Arctic Council Observers:

They shall be a part of all Council meetings once they attain the status of an Observer
The Observers need to give their contributions and engage in observing their work mainly through the Working Groups
The Observers must respect the values, interests, culture and traditions of the Arctic inhabitants
The financial contributions made by the Observers must not exceed the limit set by the Council and States
They need to demonstrate political and financial ability to assist the Permanent Participants and other Arctic indigenous peoples

Pending observer states are the European Union and Turkey.

The role of observers was re-evaluated, as were the criteria for admission. As a result, the distinction between permanent and ad hoc observers was dropped.

Working Groups of Arctic Council

The decision regarding any major issue is taken only after consensus among the eight-member countries of the Arctic Council.

Based on the mechanism of the Arctic Council, there are six Working Groups which carry out the work of the council. Discussed below are these six Working Groups in brief:

Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) – Its function is monitoring the environment, ecosystem and human population of the Arctic circle and suggesting scientific measures for climatic control
Conservation of Arctic Flora & Fauna (CAFF) – Works for the conservation of the Arctic living organism and biodiversity
Emergency Prevention, Preparedness & Response (EPPR) – Protection of accidental release of pollutants in the Arctic
Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME) – Works for protection of Arctic Marine environment
Sustainable Development Working Group (SDWG) – Improvisation and protection of Arctic communities as a whole
Arctic Contaminants Action Program (ACAP) – This works for reducing the emission and pollutants released

India and the Arctic

India launched its first scientific expeditionto the Arctic Ocean in 2007 and opened a research base named “Himadri” at the International Arctic Research Base at Ny-Alesund, Svalbard, Norway in July 2008 for carrying out studies in disciplines like Glaciology, Atmospheric sciences & Biological sciences.
The major objectives of the Indian Research in Arctic Regionare as follows:
To study the hypothesized tele-connectionsbetween the Arctic climate and the Indian monsoon by analyzing the sediment and ice core records from the Arctic glaciers and the Arctic Ocean.
To characterize sea ice in the Arctic using satellite datato estimate the effect of global warming in the northern polar region.
To conduct research on the dynamics and mass budget of Arctic glaciersfocusing on the effect of glaciers on sea-level change.
To carry out a comprehensive assessment of the flora and faunaof the Arctic and their response to anthropogenic activities. In addition, it is proposed to undertake a comparative study of the life forms from both the Polar Regions
India has been closely following the developments in the Arctic region in the light of the new opportunities and challenges emerging for the international community due to global warminginduced melting of Arctic’s ice cap.
India’s interests in the Arctic region are scientific, environmental, commercial as well as strategic.
In July 2018, Ministry of Earth Sciencesrenamed the “National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research” to the “National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research.”
It is a nodal organisationcoordinating the research activities at the stations at the poles.
India has also entered into MOU with Norwegian Polar Research Instituteof Norway, for cooperation in science, and also with Kings Bay (A Norwegian Government owned company) at Ny-Alesund for the logistic and infrastructure facilities for undertaking Arctic research and maintaining Indian Research base ‘Himadri’ at Arctic region.
In 2019, India has been re-elected as an Observerto the Council.
India does not have an official Arctic policy and its Arctic research objectives have been centred on ecological and environmental aspects, with a focus on climate change, till now.

Commercial and Strategic Interests

The Arctic region is very rich in minerals, and oil and gas. With some parts of the Arctic melting due to global warming, the region also opens up the possibility of new shipping routesthat can reduce existing distances.
Countries already have ongoing activities in the Arctic hope to have a stake in the commercial exploitation of natural resources present in the region.
The Arctic Council does not prohibit the commercial exploitationof resources in the Arctic. It only seeks to ensure that it is done in a sustainable manner without harming the interests of local populations and in conformity with the local environment.
Therefore, to stay relevant in the Arctic region, India should take advantage of the observer status it has earned in the Arctic Council and consider investing more in the Arctic.

BASIC Countries

The BASIC group was formed as the result of an agreement signed by the four countries (Brazil, South Africa, Indiaand China) on 28^th November, 2009.
BASIC is one of several groups of nations working together to fight climate change and carry out negotiations within the UNFCCC.

Significance of the grouping:

The signatory nations have a broadly common position on reducing greenhouse gas emissions and raising the massive funds that are needed to fight climate change.
The BASIC countries constituted one of the parties in the Copenhagen Accord reached with the US-led grouping; the Accord, was, however, not legally binding.
The BASIC group wields considerable heft purely because of the size of the economies and populations of the member countries.
Brazil, South Africa, India and China put together has one-third of the world’s geographical area and nearly 40% of the world’s population, and when they unitedly speak in one voice this shows their determination.
BASIC is one of several groups of nations working together to fight climate change and carry out negotiations within the UNFCCC.

Need for this grouping:

In light of the IPCC Special Report on 1.5°C released in October last year, the group took note of its findings that highlight the “high vulnerability of developing countries to climate change effects and high resultant costs of adaptation”.

The findings of the IPCC Special Report on Global Warming make it incredibly clear that the impacts of an already warming world are significant, and that impacts at 2°C are catastrophic compared to those of 1.5°C. Yet, the BASIC ministers recalled the Paris goal of limiting the temperature rise to well under 2°C, and aspiring to limit it to 1.5°C, suggesting their continued pursuit of 2°C as the target temperature limit.
The BASIC countries also contend that their nationally determined contributions (NDCs)— voluntary pledges of national efforts to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions—have demonstrated “a high level of ambition in the context of poverty and sustainable development”.

IBSA

The IBSA Dialogue Forum is an international tripartite grouping for promoting international cooperation among these countries.

IBSA is a unique Forum which brings together India, Brazil and South Africa, three large democracies and major economies from three different continents, facing similar challenges. All three partners are developing, pluralistic, multi-cultural, multi-ethnic, multi-lingual and multi-religious nations .

History of IBSA

The idea of creating a grouping composed of major democracies of three continents, Asia, Africa and South America, emerged from the disarray at the end of the 20th century, and the perceived need for developing countries to forge decisive leadership.
IBSA was launched through the Brasilia Declaration in 2003.
Its summits, between 2006 and 2011, gave it a special global profile.

Organizational Structure

Joint Working Groups

Joint Working Groups to promote sectoral cooperation have been established. There are 14 Joint Working Groups in areas, Transport; Health; Education; Defence; Science & Technology; Trade & Investment; Culture; Agriculture; Energy; Public Administration and Governance, Revenue Administration, Human Settlement, Environment and Social Development. These Working Groups meet as per their respective plans.

People-to-People Forums

There are six People-to-People Forums under IBSA. These are Parliamentary Forum, Women’s Forum, Academic Forum, Local Governance Forum, Business Forum, and Editors’ Forum. There is also a Tri-nation Forum on MSME.

Focal Points

Senior Officials from the Foreign Offices of the three countries dealing with IBSA are the designated Focal Points; Secretary (West), assisted by Joint Secretary (MER), Ministry of External Affairs, is the IBSA Focal Point for India. Focal Points meet once a year for a standalone meeting and also meet prior to the Trilateral Commission.

Trilateral Commission

The Brasilia Declaration established a Trilateral Commission at the level of Foreign Ministers. The Commission meets regularly; the first meeting of the Trilateral Commission was held in New Delhi on 4 – 5 March 2004. The 7th meeting of the Commission was also held in New Delhi on 8th March 2011; 8th Meeting is due in South Africa. In addition, Foreign Ministers meet regularly before every IBSA Summit as well as on the sidelines of UNGA in New York.

IBSA Fund

An innovative work of IBSA is the establishment of the IBSA Facility Fund for Alleviation of Poverty and Hunger through which development projects are executed with IBSA funding in fellow developing countries. An annual amount of US $ 1 million is contributed by each IBSA member country. IBSA Fund received the 2010 MDG Award for South-South cooperation on 17 September 2010 in New York recognizing the work of the three countries in using innovative approaches to share development experiences in other parts of the world.

IBSA projects cover Haiti, Guinea Bissau, Cape Verde, Burundi, Palestine, Cambodia, Lao PDR and Sierra Leone. A sports complex has been completed and inaugurated in 2011 in Ramallah under the IBSA Fund.

IBSA Business Forum

An IBSA Business Forum was launched in Cape Town in March 2005. From India, CII, FICCI and ASSOCHAM are represented on the Council; CII coordinates India’s participation.

Downfall of IBSA

But, 2011 onwards, BRICS, the larger group comprising IBSA countries, China and Russia, started to overshadow IBSA.
IBSA has been unable, until now, to hold its sixth summit.
Nevertheless, a series of events marking its 15th anniversary, held during 2018-19, have imparted new momentum to the endeavour to revitalise IBSA.

Importance of IBSA

Solidarity among developing countries –Throughout the period of its marginalisation by BRICS, a strong body of officials and experts in the three countries has held the view that IBSA is the true inheritor of solidarity among developing countries, which was nurtured from the Bandung Conference (1955) through UNCTAD and G-77 to the BAPA+40 Declaration (2018).

South – South Cooperation –It is the champion of South-South Cooperation, and the advocate of a coordinated response by developing economies to secure the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Shared Values –The glue that binds IBSA countries together is their faith in democracy, diversity, plurality, inclusivity, human rights and rule of law. This was reiterated through the IBSA Declaration on South-South Cooperation, issued in Pretoria in June 2018.

Reforms in International Organisations –

Notably IBSA remains determined to “step up advocacy for reforms of global governance institutions in multilateral fora”.
In particular, it is strongly committed to the expansion of the UN Security Council.
As Foreign Minister Sushma Swaraj put it, “We three have to ensure that our collective voice is heard clearly in BRICS and other groups on UN Security Council reforms, since if we do not speak for our own interests, no one else will.”

Kochi meeting

The IBSA Academic Forum, comprising independent experts, held its sixth session in Kochi after a hiatus of over seven years.
This forum hosted a candid and comprehensive exchange of views on the continuing relevance of IBSA; the need for a strategy to secure SDGs and cement South-South Cooperation; expanding trade cooperation; and the shared goal of enhancing academic collaboration on issues relating directly to the needs of democratic societies.

Revitalization Of IBSA

First, the three Foreign Ministers have been meeting regularly to provide coordinated leadership to the grouping.
Second, while the India, Brazil and South Africa Facility for Poverty and Hunger Alleviation (IBSA Fund) is small in monetary terms, it has succeeded in implementing 31 development projects in diverse countries: Burundi, Guinea-Bissau, State of Palestine, Cambodia and Vietnam, among others.
Third, India has been running an innovative IBSA Visiting Fellows Programme through the Delhi-based think tank, RIS or Research and Information System for Developing Countries.

BCIM

Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar (BCIM) Corridor

The 2800 km BCIM corridor proposes to link Kunming in China’s Yunnan provincewith Kolkata, passing through nodes such as Mandalay in Myanmar and Dhaka in Bangladesh before heading to Kolkata.
Issues is that China has said that the Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar (BCIM) Corridor will not be a part of the Belt & Road Initiative.
India’s decision to skip the Belt and Road Forum (BRF)may have led to the exclusion of the Bangladesh- China- India- Myanmar (BCIM) Economic corridor from the list of projects covered by the China-led Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) umbrella.

Citing “sovereignty” concerns, India, for the second time, has not officially participated in the BRF, as CPEC—a flagship of the BRI—passes through Pakistan occupied Kashmir (PoK)
BRI—the giant connectivity initiative speared by China to revive the ancient Silk Road across Eurasia and Africa.
Instead, South Asia is covered by three major undertakings—the China-Myanmar Economic Corridor (CMEC), the Nepal-China Trans-Himalayan Multi-dimensional Connectivity Network, including Nepal-China cross-border railway, as well as the China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC).

About BCIM Economic Corridor:

The BCIM economic corridor aims to connect Kolkata with Kunming, capital of the Yunnan province.

It envisages formation of a thriving economic belt, focusing on cross-border transport, energy and telecommunication networks.

Starting from Kunming, the route passes through nodal points, such as Spread: Mandalay and Lashio in Myanmar. It heads towards Kolkata after passing through Manipur and Silchar, before crossing Bangladesh via Sylhet and Dhaka, with branches extending to the ports of Cox Bazar and Chittagong.

Importance of BCIM:

India will benefit in terms of the development of the Kolkata port and the opening up of the economic potential of the northeast states.
BCIM offers India an opportunity to create its own win-win relationship with China.
India’s gain from the BCIM includes the ability to connect to the One Belt, One Road project thus opening up markets to the east.
It can also use the economic corridor for negotiating downstream industries to be located within India.
With natural gas reserves of about 200 trillion cubic feet, the largest in the Asia-Pacific, Bangladesh could become one of the major energy exporting countries.
Tourism too will get a boost.
BCIM can not only be a game-changer for this region in Asia, but is also pivotal for India’s ‘Act East’ Policy.
Economic Benefits include access to several booming markets in Southeast Asia, improvement of transport infrastructure and setting up of industrial zones.
The regional connectivity would facilitate cross-border movement of people and goods, reduce overland trade bottlenecks, ensure access and increase volume of trade.
Substantially reduce transaction costs, enhance trade and investment and poverty alleviation in the region.

Concerns:

Indian critics of BCIM state that China cannot be trusted, and cite the divergent positions of the two countries on Arunachal Pradesh and PoK.

Security is a very important aspect of BCIM that ethnic insurgencies, terrorism, drug trafficking and the accompanying spread of HIV infections, smuggling, as well as cross-border human trafficking, threatened to derail the project.

Need of hour:

The immediate priority for India is to build and upgrade infrastructure, including roads, railway network, waterways and air connectivity within north-eastern states.

Work on the India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway joining India’s Northeast with Thailand and other ASEAN members through Myanmar needs to be expedited. This network will provide connectivity between the isolated Northeast and the expanding economies of South East Asia.

Similarly, the Kaladan Multimodal Transit Transport Project will help connect the Northeast with Myanmar as well as with West Bengal.

Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal (BBIN) needs to be accorded the highest priority as it has great potential to deliver rich dividends quickly.

Emphasis on the implementation of Act East Policy.

In BCIM, a step-by-step approach is desirable in the form of people-centric projects in education, healthcare, skill development, tourism and cottage industries should be undertaken. Local talent, material and products should be utilised in this endeavour. China and India need to work together to bring about a fundamental change in their bilateral relations.

Belt and Road Initiative (BRI):

China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)is an ambitious programme to connect Asia with Africa and Europe via land and maritime networks along six corridors with the aim of improving regional integration, increasing trade and stimulating economic growth.
The BRI comprises a Silk Road Economic Belt – a trans-continental passage that links China with south east Asia, south Asia, Central Asia, Russia and Europe by land – and a 21st century Maritime Silk Road, a sea route connecting China’s coastal regions with south east and south Asia, the South Pacific, the Middle East and Eastern Africa, all the way to Europe.
The programme is expected to involve over US$1 trillion in investments, largely in infrastructure development for ports, roads, railways and airports, as well as power plants and telecommunications networks.
The BRI’s geographical scope is constantly expanding. So far it covers over 70 countries, accounting for about 65 per cent of the world’s population and around one-third of the world’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
- The initiative defines five major priorities:
- Policy coordination;
- Infrastructure connectivity;
- Unimpeded trade;
- Financial integration and Connecting people.

BBIN

Bangladesh, Bhutan, India and Nepal (BBIN) had signed a framework MVA in June 2015 to enable movement of passenger and cargo vehicles across borders among the four countries. Bhutan has not yet ratified the pact for its entry to come into force.

BBIN is part of India’s ‘Look East Policy’. This initiative can also solve India’s longstanding problem of locational disadvantage and poor connectivity of its north-eastern states.

It is the regional sub-grouping India had planned for ease of access among the four countries.

It was an alternative proposed by the government after Pakistan rejected the Motor Vehicle Agreement (MVA) at the SAARC summit in Kathmandu in 2014.

It seeks to allow trucks and other commercial vehicles to ply on one another’s highways to facilitate trade.

Of the other SAARC members, Sri Lanka and the Maldives are not connected by land, and Afghanistan could only be connected if Pakistan was on board.

The landmark MVA was signed by Transport Ministers of the BBIN countries in Thimphu, Bhutan on 15 June 2015. As per the agreement, member countries would allow vehicles registered in the other countries to enter their territory under certain terms and conditions. Customs and tariffs will be decided by the respective countries and these would be finalised at bilateral and trilateral forums.
Objective:The main objective of the agreement is to provide seamless people-to-people contact and enhance economic interaction by facilitating cross border movement of people and goods.
Benefits:It would permit unhindered movement of passenger and cargo vehicles among the four countries. Cargo vehicles do not have to be changed at the border, a practice that has prevailed until now. The BBIN agreement will promote safe, economical efficient and environmentally sound road transport in the sub-region and will further help each country in creating an institutional mechanism for regional integration.
Assistance from ADB:The Asian Development Bank(ADB) has been providing technical, advisory, and financial support to the BBIN MVA initiative as part of its assistance to the South Asia Sub regional Economic Cooperation (SASEC) program, a projects-based economic cooperation initiative that brings together the BBIN countries, Maldives, Sri Lanka and more recently, Myanmar. ADB is the secretariat of SASEC.

Bhutan announced in 2017 ,that it is unable to proceed with the Motor Vehicles Agreement with Bangladesh, India and Nepal.

Challenges

Attitude of Bhutan: Having unsuccessfully tried to ratify the proposal for more than a year, Bhutan finally declared that it was unable to proceed with the ratification process ‘for now’.
The Bhutanese fear that the implementation of the deal would lead to an influx of vehicles from other countries impacting its own transporters and degradation of environment.
Non-binding agreement: Being a non-binding agreement, the implementation of BBIN MVA may follow a best endeavour approach.
Insufficient infrastructure:A surge in traffic may cause damage to the existing infrastructure in the sub region, since it is not equipped to handle the additional load.
Managing cross border corridors is another challenge.
Visa regime:A liberalised visa regime and efforts to improve synergy between markets in different countries (such as the pact to bring in sync India and Bangladesh’s product standardisation systems signed during the recent prime ministerial visit to Dhaka) are just some of the other steps that will have to be taken.
Technical challenges:Many border crossing points do not have integrated check posts. Poor road conditions, the introduction of double-locking system on Nepalese trucks passing through Indian Territory, technical issues related to customs and tariffs, etc., are pose major challenges in this regard.
Synergy between governments: Coordination between inter-ministerial departments as well as between central and state agencies, especially in India, has been a major problem in implementing agreements.

What are the consequences?

After Bhutan’s decision, India, Nepal and Bangladesh will have to decide whether to wait for Bhutan to reconsider or to press ahead with a truncated ‘BIN’ arrangement.
Reconsidering will not be easy as the main concern expressed by Bhutanese citizen groups and politicians is over increased vehicular and air pollution.
The upper house of parliament has refused to ratify the MVA that was originally signed by all four BBIN countries in 2015.

What should be done?

It should be seen as a road block, and not a dead end.
Despite the setback, New Delhi must persevere with its efforts.
Dry runs have been conducted along the routes, and officials estimate the road links could end up circumventing circuitous shipping routes by up to 1,000 km.
Bhutan’s concerns may be eased if India considers the inclusion of waterways and riverine channels as a less environmentally damaging substitute.
A similar initiative for the Asian Highway project under the BCIM (Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar) corridor got a boost this week as the countries moved to upgrade the dialogue to the governmental level.
Connectivity is the new global currency for growth and prosperity and India must continue to make the most of its geographic advantages.
The BBIN initiative fits well with the new wave of developing massive transnational road and rail connectivity networks. All these will facilitate intra- and inter-regional trade in goods and services.
It also integrates well with India’s ‘Look East Policy’. This initiative can also solve India’s longstanding problem of locational disadvantage and poor connectivity of its north-eastern states.
But India needs to utilize every possible platform to generate a favourable narrative for BBIN MVA among Bhutan political class as well as people of Bhutan.

UNCITRAL

The United Nations Commission on International Trade Law is a subsidiary body of the U.N. General Assembly responsible for helping to facilitate international trade and investment.

The UN Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) is a subsidiary body of the U.N. General Assembly.
It is responsible for helping to facilitate international trade and investment.
Established by the UNGA in 1966.
Mandate is “to promote the progressive harmonization and unification of international trade law” through conventions, model laws, and other instruments that address key areas of commerce, from dispute resolution to the procurement and sale of goods.
Annual sessions held alternately in New York City and Vienna, where it is headquartered.
The Tribunal constituted in accordance with the UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules 1976 is seated at the Hague, Netherlands, and proceedings are administered by the Permanent Court of Arbitration.

Background

The existing Code in The Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (IBC) provides for two sections i.e. 234 and 235 — relating to cross-border insolvency, which allows the Centre to enter into an agreement with a foreign country for enforcing the provisions of the Code, which is considered insufficient and time-taking.
Moreover, these sections are yet to be made operational.
In case the UN model is adopted for cross-border insolvency matters, then sections 234 and 235 could be dropped from the Code as they pertain to only bilateral pacts.
The inclusion of cross-border insolvency framework will further enhance ease of doing business, provide a mechanism of cooperation between India and other countries in the area of insolvency resolution, and protect creditors in the global scenario.

An International Arbitration Tribunal has dismissed all claims brought against India in entirety. The arbitration arose out of the cancellation of Letters of Intent for the issuance of telecom licences to provide 2G services in five telecommunications circles by reason of India’s essential security interests.

How UNCITRAL draft convention works?

The convention will link laws adopted by countries to recognise domestic mediation and extend them beyond their boundaries.
It defines mediation as a “process whereby parties attempt to reach an amicable settlement of their dispute with the assistance of a third person (the mediator).
Courts of a country before which a mediated settlement agreement is brought must ensure implementation of the terms of settlement.
The courts will allow a party to a settlement agreement to rely on this agreement as a defence in cases filed on the basis of disputes already settled by the agreement.
When the settlement agreement comes up before the court for implementation or enforcement, the court will review it on the basis of certain conditions.
Once the agreement has been reviewed, the court must enforce the agreement on the terms agreed, Courts can decline enforcement only on these conditions.
The importance of the draft convention is in the identification of these conditions after careful deliberation.
Mediated settlement agreements typically don’t need court assistance for enforcement since the terms of settlement have been chosen and determined by the parties.

What are the existing concerns to India in dispute resolution?

India has lost substantial earnings as a result of international disputes being taken for resolution outside the country.
International transactions involve the application of different laws, by virtue of the persons from different countries being involved, or their undertaking a business in a third country.
Due to this there are various policy gap on outcomes from the mediation process involving cross-border disputes.

How this draft convention will resolve India’s issues?

Strengthening the dispute resolution policies will encourage dispute resolution in India.
By this definitive legal framework businesses will be encouraged to consider mediation in managing and resolving disputes that arise in their commercial transactions.
This convention comes the certainty that settlement agreements through mediation will be acknowledged as a resolution of the dispute, and will be respected and enforced.
The convention is opportune to India and will facilitate legal reform to ease dispute resolution

Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation & Development

The body is a significant inter-governmental forum for promoting trade and cooperation in the Asia-Pacific region. It is having its headquarters in Singapore.

The necessity of a permanent body to coordinate the economic relations among the market-oriented nations of the Pacific rim was voiced by the then Australian Prime Minister, Robert Hawke, in January 1989. The Pacific Economic Cooperation Council (PECC), which consisted of a group of business, academics and government representatives and had been holding informal discussions since 1980, endorsed this proposal, and the first meeting of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) was held in Canberra, Australia, on November 6-7, 1989.

The institutionalization of APEC was completed in 1992 when the Bangkok Ministerial Meeting decided to establish a permanent Secretariat in Singapore.

Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation – Objectives

The broad objectives are to provide a forum for discussion on a wide range of economic issues, and to promote multilateral cooperation among the market-oriented economies of the region. Specifically, APEC aims to promote economic and technical cooperation among the members by stimulating flow of goods, services, capital and technology; to develop a liberalized trade and investment regime; to encourage private investment, and to support ‘open regionalism’.

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation

Established:1989
Members: 21
India is not a Member.
Member Nations: Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, China, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, Russia, Singapore, Chinese Taipei, Thailand, Vietnam and the United States.
Its 21 member economies are home to around 8 billion people and represented approximately 59% of world GDP and 49% of world trade in 2015.

India and APEC

India had requested membership in APEC, and received initial support from the United States, Japan, Australia and Papua New Guinea. Officials have decided not to allow India to join as India does not border the Pacific Ocean, which all current members do.
India was invited to be an observer for the first time in November 2011.

Reasons for India to join APEC:

India will be more integrated with the global economy since APEC economies constitute an important trading bloc in the world.
It will help India bargain and negotiate a better deal with the countries of the Asia-Pacific region.

Expected Benefits to APEC:

In India, APEC will find an alternate market for labour, consumers and investments, and an additional counterweight to help check unilateral economic ambitions in the region.
It will also help APEC embrace some notion of ‘Indo-Pacific’ and give it a renewed purpose in a renewed 21st century.
Recently, a virtual meeting of the21-member Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum was held.(November 2020).
The meeting was hosted by Malaysia. New Zealand will also host next year’s APEC meetings virtually due to the pandemic.

Key Points

With growth in the Asia-Pacific region expected to decline by 2.7%this year, from a 3.6% growth in 2019, APEC’s focus was on accelerating economic recovery and developing an affordable vaccine.
Focus Areas: Trade and investment, Digital Economy and Technology, Structural Reform, Economic and Technical Cooperation and Thematic and institutional matters.
APEC leaders adopted the Putrajaya Vision 2040,a new 20-year growth vision to replace the Bogor Goals named after the Indonesian town where leaders agreed in 1994 to free and open trade and investment.
Recognised the importance of a free, open, fair, non-discriminatory, transparent and predictable trade and investment environment to drive economic recovery at such a challenging time (Covid-19).
Discussed the Free Trade Area of the Asia-Pacific (FTAAP) agenda and the APEC Internet and Digital Economy Roadmap (AIDER).
China has become the main driving force behind the grouping after the United States began withdrawing from multilateral bodies during Trump’s presidency.
But Trump made the surprise decision to take part in this year’s event, after not participating at APEC since 2017.

China’s Stand:

It vowed to keep its “super-sized” economy open for business and warned against protectionism as the world battles the Covid-19 pandemic. It needs to be noted that Trump’s “America First”policy has alienated trading partners.
After the signing of the world’s largest trade pact ‘Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP)’, China is trying to set the agenda for global commerce.
Although China is promoting openness in trade, its own actions go against it, for example:
Australian exports of beef, wine and barley to China, their biggest market, have been restricted.

PACIFIC ISLANDS FORUM

The Pacific Islands Forum is an inter-governmental organization that aims to enhance cooperation between countries and territories of the Pacific Ocean, including formation of a trade bloc and regional peacekeeping operations.
The Pacific Islands Forum is the region’s premier political and economic policy organization which was founded in 1971.
It comprises18 members: Australia, Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, French Polynesia, Kiribati, Nauru, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Republic of Marshall Islands, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu.
The Pacific Islands Forum aims to foster cooperation between governments, collaboration with international agencies, by representing the interests of its members for a region of peace, harmony, security, social inclusion, and prosperity, so that all Pacific people can lead-free, healthy, and productive lives.
The Pacific Islands Forum is an intergovernmental organization formed by 16 nations of the Pacific Ocean.
The organization is mandated to promote intergovernmental relations between member countries and to come up with solutions to collectively tackle common issues such as climate change and eradication of diseases.
The Pacific Islands Forum which was founded in 1970 was initially known as the South Pacific Forum but revised its name to a more geographically accurate one in 1999.
The Forum has its headquarters in Suva, Fiji, and has annual meetings in alternating locations where the leader of the government in the host country acts as the chair. These countries which do not share a border are in talks to develop a free trade zone among the member countries to promote free movement of people and commodities.
The member countries and territories of the Pacific Islands Forum are 16 nations located in the Pacific Ocean and include Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands among others. Other countries are listed as observers who do not enjoy all the privileges that come with membership. These nations include American Samoa, Northern Mariana Islands among others. Some global institutions and organizations such as the United Nations, the Commonwealth, the Asian Development Bank, and the World Bank are also observers.
The island nation of Fiji had failed to hold a general election which had been scheduled for March 2009. This prompted the Pacific Islands Forum annual meeting to give Fiji an ultimatum to hold the general elections giving a deadline of May 1, 2009. Failure to comply would necessitate tough decisions from the Forum. After Fiji failed to meet the set deadline, the Forum suspended Fiji’s membership indefinitely. This was the first time a nation was suspended in the Forum’s history and set a precedent for similar issues in the future. However, after five years, Fiji conducted a general election on September 2014 after which the Forum readmitted Fiji on October 2014.
The Forum has been deliberating to form a union of all member nations which will have common institutions, use a common currency and have a free trade zone with free movement of commodities and people. The existing similar integration is limited to New Zealand and Australia but aims to be rolled out to all members of the Forum. However, no timeline has been given to this effect.

Biketawa Declaration

It is a declaration agreed to by all the leaders of the Pacific Islands Forum constituting a framework for coordinating response to regional crises.
The declaration was agreed to at the 31st Summit of Pacific Islands Forum Leaders, held at Kiribati in October 2000.
It’s principles are: commitment to good governance, belief in the liberty of the individual under the law, upholding democratic processes and institutions and recognising the vulnerability of member countries to threats to their security

Boe Declaration

Pacific countries vulnerable to climate change have urged Australia to abandon coal power generation within 12 years, and to prohibit new coal plants or expansion of existing plants.
Tuvalu has urged Australia to avoid opening of new mines such as Adani project for the Carmichael mine in Queensland. It cited the Boe Declaration which Australia signed in September.
The “Boe Declaration” of the “Pacific Islands Forum” reaffirmed that climate change remains the single greatest threat to the livelihoods, security and wellbeing of the peoples of the Pacific.
Boe declaration recognises and reaffirms the commitments and principles of Biketawa Declaration of the year 2000